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4 New Series. [ JANUARY, 1877.] Vou. Ill. No. 1

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, |THE WESTERN:

A JOURNAL OF

LITERATURE, EDUCATION,
AND ART.

H. H. MORGAN, EpiTor.

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CONTENTS.

Topical Shakespeariauua—H. H. MORGAN...........0..cceeeeesereeeees 1
14
Dante’s Purgatorio—L. F. SOLDAN........2.00..ceereceeseeeeeeeeesceees 21
‘Two Romance Languages—ANNIE W ALL...........2..02-00eeeeeee* 32
Proceeding= 47
Pe INI oni ctcecorsccesocehemmpebsivicescocasaceconvessascsebessscosbeae

Noticeuble Articles in Magazines aud Reviews

oO
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The Western.

JANUARY, 1877.

°

TOPICAL SHAKESPEARIANA.

LEARNING AND SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE.

(Continued from Dec. N umber.)

E. Malone —Account of the Incidents from which title and

part of the Story of The Tempest was derived.

Thos. Middleton—The Witch.

Meres—Treasury of Wit.

Wm. Maginn—Shakespeare Papers.

John Nichols—Six Old Plays.

W. Parr—Story of the Moor of Venice (from the Italian).

Duncan Pell—Harper’s, 23-486.

K. Prescott—Essay on the Learning of Shakespeare.

R. Robinson—Translation of Gesta Romanorum.

Sir Philip Sidney—Arcadia (Parallelisms).

Alex. Sylvayn—Orator (Plot of Merchant of Venice).

W. W. Skeat—Shakespeare’s Plutarch.

Stearns—Shakespeare Treasury.

B. Thorpe—Anglo-Saxon Version of the Play of Pericles.

Lope de Vege—Romeo and Juliet.

VOL. IIl.—No. 1.—1.

bo

The Western.

Peter Whalley—An Inquiry into the Learning of Shake-
speare.

Geo. Whetstone—Promos and Cassandra.

Geo. Wilkins—Pericles, Prince of Tyre: a novel.

Apollonius of Tyre ( Anglo-Saxon Version of Pericles).
Chronicle History of Leir, King of England. Dublin Uni-
versity Magazine, July, 1876. Euphues Golden Legacie (As
You Like It). Essay on Authorship, three parts Henry VL.,
1859. Famous Victories Henry V. Gentleman’s Magazine,
1833, Vol. I-415. Gesta Romanorum. London Quarterly
Review, 1849, et aliter. North American Review 54-318.
Pitiful History of Two Loving Italians. Papers of the Shake-
speare Society: (Passage in Marlowe’s Edward II., and in
first part of The Contention. Ballad illustrating Romeo and
Juliet. Illustrative of Twelfth Night. Campbell’s Mistake
about the Tempest. Punctuation of “ too, too,” in Hamlet.
Heywood’s Ballad of the Green Willow vs. Othello’s Green
Willow. Imitations of Shelley in Shelley’s Ceres. Shake-
speare’s Puck. Illustration of a Passage in Taming of the
Shrew. Shakespeare illustrated: or the novels and histories
upon which the Plays of Shakespeare are founded.) Retro-
spective Review, 8-108, 127, 129, 130, 225. Shakespéare Soci-
ety Publications, 1842 (Old Play of Timon). Shakespeare il-
lustrated: novels and histories on which the Plays of Shake-
speare are founded, 1753. The novel from which Merchant
of Venice is taken. Six old Plays on which Shakespeare
founded his Measure for Measure, Comedy of Errors, Taming
of the Shrew, John, Henry IV. and V.

LEGAL KNOWLEDGE.
Lord Campbell—Legal Acquirements of Shakespeare.
R. F. Fuller—Monthly Review, Nov., 1862.
Heard—Legal Attainments of Shakespeare.

Topical Shakespeariana. 3

W. L. Rushton—Herrig’s Archiv., XX XI-3 (Shakespeare’s
Tenures). XXXII-1 and 2 (illustrated by Lex Scripta).
Shakespeare’s Legal Maxims. Shakespeare as a Lawyer.
Shakespeare illustrated by Lex Scripta. Shakespeare’s
Testamentary Language.

H. T.—Was Shakespeare a Lawyer?

Geo. Wilkes—Spirit of the Times, 1875.

LIFE.

8S. A. Allibone—Dictionary of Authors, [I-2006

D. E. Baker—Biogrophia Dramatica.

Bell—Missing Years in Life of Shakespeare.

Sir Thos. Blount—Remarks on Poetry.

H. G. Bohn—Biography and Bibliography of Shakespeare.

C. H. Bracebridge—Shakespeare no Deerstealer.

John Britton—Remarks on Shakespeare’s Life and Writ-
ings.

C. A. Brown—Shakespeare’s Autobiographical Poems.

David Paul Brown—Sketches of Life and Genius of Shake-
speare.

Thos. Campbell—Specimens of British Poets (Moxon’s Ed.)
Lives of the British Dramatists, Phila., 1846.

Alex. Chalmers—Works of the English Poets. Encyclo-
pedia Metropolitana. General Biog. Dictionary.

R. Chambers—Cyclopedia of Eng. Literature, -109

T. Cibber—Lives of the Poets, Vol. I.

J. P. Collier—History of Early English Stage. New facts
concerning the life of Shakespeare.

Fred. Cox—Essay on Genesis, Life and Character of Shake-
speare.

Z. Craft—Shakespeare Monument.

Curll—Life of Dennis.

Nathan Drake—Shakespeare and his Times.
Shakespeare.

Memorials of

The Western.

Duyckinck— Edition.

Alex. Dyce

Life of Shakespeare. Poems with Memoir.

J. A. M. Evans—The Progress of Human Life.

Clara Fisher—Remembrance of Shakespeare.

F. G. Fleay—Shakespeare Manual.

Thos. Ford—Shakespeare and his Contemporaries.

S. W. Fullom—The History of Wm. Shakespeare.

C, F. Green—Legend of Shakespeare’s Crab Tree.

Jobn Hall—Select Observations on English Bodies (Shake-
speare’s connections).

J. O. Halliwell—Mise. Llustrations of the Life of Shake-
speare. Life of Shakespeare. Life and Will of Wm. Shake-
speare.

W. Harness—Life (prefixed to Edition).

Harvey—Shakespeare’s Biography.

J. A. Heraud—Temple Bar, April, 1862, V-53 (Inner Life,
as illustrated in Shakespeare’s Works.)

Victor Hugo—Shakespeare.

H. N. Hudson—Life, Art, and Character of Shakespeare.

Joseph Hunter—lIllustrations of Shakespeare.

Nath’l. Holmes—Authorship of Shakespeare.

Giles Jacob—The Poetical Register.

G. Jones—Tecumseh, &e., with Ovation on Life of Shake-
speare. The First Jubilee Orations.

W. ©. Kent—Dreamland.

T. Kenny—Life and Genius of Shakespeare.

Keightley—Shakespeare Expositor.

C. Knight—Biography of Shakespeare.

W.S. Landor—Citation before Sir Thos. Lucy.

E. Malone—l.ife of Shakespeare.

H. H. Morgan—American Journal of Education, Feb., 1873.

S. Neil—Shakespeare: a critical Biography.

Edward Phillips—Theatrum Poetarum Anglicanorum.

Topical Shakespeariana.

Thos. DeQuincey=Encyclopedia Britanica. | Biographies.
Works.

C. Robert—Wnm. Shakespeare.

C. A. Schwerdtgeburih—Appendix to Shakespeare’s Dra-
matic Works.

S. W. Singer—Essays on the Life and Plays of Shake-

speare.

Aug. Skottowe—Life of Shakespeare.

C. Symmons—Preface to Singer’s Edition.

H. Ulrici—Shakespeare’s Dramatic Art.

Cardinal Wiseman—W m. Shakespeare: a Lecture.

Ward—English Dramatic Literature, 271.

R. B. Wheler—History and Antiquities of Stratford-on-
Avon.

T. B. Whincoop—Seanderberg: a Tragedy.

E. P. Whipple—Atlantic Monthly, June, 1867.

Richard Grant White—Memoirs of Life of Shakespeare,
with an Essay towards the Expression of his Services.
Christian Examiner, 1866-26.

Geo. Wilkes—Spirit of the Times, 1875.

Appendix to Dramatic Works, Leipzic, 1826. Biographia
Britanica. Boston Lyceum, I-126 and 206. British Curiosi-
ties im Art and Nature. Encyclopedia Americana. Ency-
clopedia Metropolitana. Illustrated London News, Sept. 18,
1847. Illustrations of the Life of the Life of Shakespeare,
London, Longman’s. Lardner’s Cyclopedia. Lippincott’s
Biog. Dictionary, 2007. London Quarterly Review, July,
1871, CIII. Remarks on Life and Writings of Shakespeare.
Wm. Shakespeare: a Biography, London, 1805. Shake-
speare: (Traits of Character). Southern Review, 4-37. Shake-
speare’s Merry Tales. Shakespeare: a Miscellany. Shake-
speare’s Life: 12 Stereoscopic Pictures. Traditionary Anec-

6 The Western.

dotes of Shakespeare. Traditionary Anecdotes of Shake-
speare collected in Warwickshire.

MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE.

Bell—Principles of Surgery, Vol. II-557.

Horatio R. Bigelow—Hamlet’s Insanity.

A. Brigham—London Quarterly Review, 49-181; 82-357 to
371; 380 to 383; and 390 to 394 (Insanity).

J. C. Bucknill—Medical Knowledge of Shakespeare. Mad
Folk of Shakespeare. Psychology of Shakespeare.

G. Farren—Observations on the Laws of Mortality and
Disease (Melancholia of Lear, Hamlet, Ophelia, and Edgar).

Dr. Fergusson—On the Madness of Hamlet.

Sir Henry Halford—Essays and Orations (Shakespeare’s
Tests of Insanity).

A. O. Kellogg—Shakespeare’s Delineations of Insanity
(Cordelia).

Isaac Ray—American Journal of Insanity, IIT.

G. Ross—The Mad Characters of Shakespeare.

C. W. Stearns—Shakespeare’s Medical Knowledge.

W. Wadd—Quarterly Journal of Science, 1829.

Geo. Wilkes—Spirit of the Times, 1875.

F. Winslow—Obscure Diseases of the Brain, Ch. 4-58.
Harper’s, 8-391 (Case of Lady Macbeth medically considered.)

MUSIC.

Addison—Music of Shakespeare arranged for the Piano.

T. A. Arne—Music of Merchant of Venice. Dirge in Cym-
beline. As You Like It. Twelfth Night. Romeo and Juliet.
Garrick’s Ode to Shakespeare Songs and Duets in the Blind
Beggar.

Sam’l. Arnold—Scotch Airs in Macbeth.

fitireniae drench ta aint

Topical Shakespeariana. 7

T. Aylward—Six Songs (Harlequin’s Invasion, Cymbeline,
and Midsummer Night’s Dream).

F. M. Bartholdy —The Music to Midsummer Night’s
Dream.

H. R. Bishop—As You Like It, set to music. Music in
Midsummer Night’s Dream. Two Gentlemen of Verona.
Comedy of Errors.

W. Boyce—The Masque of the Tempest.

W. H. Caleott—Music in Macbeth.

T. Caulfield—Vocal Music in Shakespeare’s Plays.

Wm. Chilcott—Songs set to Musie.

C. D. Collett—Locke’s Masiec in Macbeth.

C. Dibdin—Shakespeare’s Garland.

John Eccles—Selections from Music in Macbeth.

B. Gilbert—Shakespeare’s Dream.

John Gilbert—Songs and Ballads illustrated.

J. L. Hatton—Music in King Henry VIII.

C. E. Horn—Songs of Midsummer Night’s Dream. Shake-
speare’s Seven Ages.

J. Isaacson—Music in King Henry V.

Kitchiner—Collection of Vocal Music in Shakespeare.

J. F. Lampe—Dirge in Romeo and Juliet. Pyramus and
Thisbe—a mock Opera.

W. Linley—Dramatic Songs to all of Shakespeare’s Dramas.

M. Lock—The Introductory Symphony in Macbeth.

Matthew Locke—Original Music in Macbeth. Introduc-
tory Symphony in Macbeth. Music of The Tempest. Vocal
Music in Psyche.

J. Loder—Introductory Symphony in Macbeth (for Piano).
F. W. G. Mapleson—Songs and Ballads illustrated.

F. Mendelssohn—Music in Midsummer Night’s Dream.

G. Nicks—Ophelia’s Airs.

J. Noble—Shakespeare Album, 1862.

8 The Western.

Novello—Musical Times.

F. T. Palgrave—Songs and Sonnets.

Henry Purcell—Adaptation of Midsummer Night’s Dream.

Geo. Soane—Shakespeare’s Seven Ages.

J. C. Smith—The Tempest: an Opera.

Howard Staunton—Songs and Sonnets. Stratford-on-Avon.

A. Sullivan—Music in The Tempest.

Vernon—Music in Twelfth Night. Two Gentlemen of Ve-
rona.

Album for the Pianoforte, 1864. Choice Ayres and Dia-
logues. Complete Edition of Locke’s Music for Macbeth.
Music in The Tempest: by Purcell, Arne and Linley. Songs
of Shakespeare, illustrated by the Etching Club, 1843, 1853.
Shakespeare Album, or Warwickshire Garland. Songs,
Choruses, &c., at the Jubilee, 1769. Songs in the Jubilee at
Drury Lane, 1770. Shakespeare Vocal Magazine. Songs in
the New Entertainment of the Jubilee, 1787. Songs in Gar-
rick’s Jubilee, 1816. Shakespeare Album for the Pianoforte.
The Tempest: an Opera, 1756. The Fairies: an Opera. The
Songster’s Pocket Book, 1770. Vocal Album.

MY'THOLOGY.

W. Bell—Shakespeare’s Puck and Folk Lore.

J. O. Halliwell—Lllustration Fairy Mythology of Shake
speare.

A. Roffe—Essay on the Ghost Belief of Shakespeare.

W. Thoms—Three Notelets on Shakespeare.

Shakespeare Society Papers, 1845. (Halliwell’s Lllustrations
of Fairy Mythology).

NOVELS.

H. Curling—Geraldine Maynard, a tale of the days of
Shakespeare. Shakespeare as Poet, Lover, Artist, and Man:
a Romance.

sae

an ch a

Topical Shakespeariana. 9

Nathan Drake—Noontide Leisure.

Charles Lamb—Tales from Shakespeare.

E. Severn— Anne Hathaway or Shakespeare in Love.

©. A. Somerset—Shakespeare’s Early Days: an historical
play.

F. Williams—Shakespeare and his Friends. The Youth of
Shakespeare.

R. F. Williams—The Secret Passlon.

Congel and Fenella: a tale founded upon Macbeth. Shake-
speare Novels.

ORATORY.

W. P. Heston—The Western, 1873.
Iutroduction to Shakespeare’s Plays.

ORNITHOLOGY.

J. E. Harting—Ornithology of Shakespeare.

PHILOSOPHY.

Delia Bacon—Philosophy of Shakespeare.

W. Birch—Inguiry into Philosophy and Religion of Shake-
speare.

T. Price—Wisdom and Genius of Shakespeare.

Michael H. Rankin—The Philosophy of Shakespeare, 1841.

Nett Rankin—Philosophy of Shakespeare.

Philosophy of Shakespeare, 1857 and 1864. Philosophy of
Shakespeare, Edinburgh, 1867. Shakespeare’s Philosophy,
8vo., 1857. The Philosophy of Wm. Shakespeare, 1859, 1860,

PLOTS.
J. O. Halliwell—Remarks of Karl Simrock.
Charles Lamb—Tales from Shakespeare.

10 The Western.

Karl Simrock—On the Plots of Shakespeare.
Aug. Skottowe—Life of Shakespeare.
Shakespeare Society Papers (Remarks of Karl Simrock).

PORTRAITS.
J. V. Barrett—Shakespeare fresh chiseled in stone.
Beeton—Shakespeare Memorial.

J. Boaden—Authenticity of various portraits and prints. .

J. Nicoll Boydell—Catalogue of Pictures in Shakespeare
Gallery, Pall Mall.

John Britton—Remarks on Monumental Bust of Shake-
speare at Stratford:

J. P. Collier—Dissertation on imputed Portraits.

Sam’|. Cousins—Wm. Shakespeare.

N. Drake—Memorials of Shakespeare.

Martin Droeshout—Portrait in Folio. ©

R. H. Forster—Few Remarks on Chandos Portrait.

H. Friswell—Life Portraits of Shakespeare.

Harding — Shakespeare illustrated by an assemblage of
Portraits and Views.

Gabriel Harrison—Stratford Bust.

Jeffreys—Stratford Bust.

Chas. Knight—Studies of Portraits.

J. McKain Meek—Memorial of Merits and Genius of Skake-
speare.

Merridew—Catalogue of Engraved Portraits of the Nobili-
ty, &e.

Nett Rankin— Proposals for Engraving Telton Portrait.

N. Richardson—Proposals for Engraving Telton Portrait.

H. Rodd—On the Chandos Portrait.

S. Spooner—Prints from Pictures printed to illustrate the
Dramatic Works of Shakespeare.
Geo. Schaaf—Principal Portraits of Shakespeare.

Ace a iA BOS EA Na

Topical Shakespeariana. 11

Taylor— The Bee (Catalogue of Pictures in Shakespeare
Gallery).

W. Thoms— Notes and Queries, 1864-121 (Kesselstadt
Mask). Stratford Bust of Shakespeare.

» 4 Whincoop—Scanderberg : a Tragedy.

A, Wivell—Account of his Portrait of Shakespeare. His-
torical Account of Bust of Shakespeare at Stratford. In-
quiry into Authenticity, &c., of Shakespeare Portraits. Sup-
plement to Historical Account of Bust at Stratford.

Atheneum, 1848-937 and 1033 (Chandos Portrait). Appen-
dix to Dramatic Works, Leipzig, 1826. Catalogue of Pictures
in Shakespeare Gallery. Collection of Prints from Pictures
illustrating Shakespeare. Leisure Hour Series, No. 644.
London Reader, 1863-I-562 (Stratford Busts). Portrait pho-
tographed from First Folio, Ellis, 1864. Portfolio, 15-588. Pic-
tures in Boydell’s Shakespeare Gallery. Remarks on Monn-
ments and Busts at Stratford. Shakespeare Society Papers,
1849 (Dissertation on Imputed Portraits). Scribner’s Monthly,
Vol. X., p. 558, and Sept., 1875. Stratford Portrait and the
Atheneum.

PSYCHOLOGY.
J. C. Bucknill—Psychology of Shakespeare.
Dyson Wood—Hamlet.

RELIGION AND MORALITY AND KNOWLEDGE OF THE BIBLE.
W. Bell—Bible Truths with Shakespeare Parallels.
W. Birch—Inquiry into Philosophy and Religion of Shake-
speare.
John Bascom—Philosophy of English Literature.
John Brown—Bible Truths with Shakespeare Parallels.
Jeremy Collier—Short View of Immorality and Profane-
ness of English Stage, 1698.

12 The Western.

T. R. Eaton—Shakespeare and the Bible.

Mrs. Elizabeth Griffiths—The Morality of Shakespeare’s
Plays illustrated.

Thos. Greenfield—Remarks on the Moral Influence of
Shakespeare’s Plays.

C. V. Grintield—Remarks on the Moral Influence of Shake-
speare’s Plays.

J. E. Kimball—The Western.

Brinsley Nicolson—Notes and Queries, 1865, No. 174, and
Parallel Passages, Shakespeare and Daniel.

T. Price— Wisdom and Genius of Shakespeare.

James Rees—Shakespeare and the Bible.

E. R. Rapel—Theological Review, Oct., 1876, p. 27.

Stearns—Shakespeare Treasury.

Geo. Wilkes—Spirit of the Times, 1875.

Chas. Wordsworth—Shakespeare’s Knowledge and Use of
the Bible.

Bible Truths with Shakespeare Parallels, London, 1862.
Gentleman’s Magazine, 1831, II-257. Leisure Hour, No. 644
(As a Moral Teacher). Moral Sentences and Sentiments,
compared with Holy Writ, 1847, 1850. Moral Sentences cull-
ed from works of Shakespeare compared with Sacred Passa-
ges drawn from Holy Writ; London, no date. Keligious and
Moral Sentences culled from the Works of Shakespeare, com-
pared with Passages drawn from Holy Writ; London, Cal-
kin & Budd, 1843. Religious Extracts from Shakespeare.
Religious and Moral Sentences from Shakespeare. . Shake-
speare compared with Holy Writ, 1843. The Rambler, 1854,
No. 7 (Was Shakespeare a Catholic.) 1858, March to May
(What was the Religion of Shakespeare). Time and Truth,
reconciling the Moral and Religious world to Shakespeare.

SONNETS.

John Armstrong—Sonnets from Shakespeare, by Albert.

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in ahi. tin eB,

aN rt ae ih Ae aR

Topical Shakespeariana.

Wm. R. Alger—Christian Examiner, Nov., 1862.

J. Boaden—Remarks on Sonnets of Shakespeare.

C. A- Brown—Shakespeare’s Autobiographical Poems.

Henry Browne—Sonnets of Shakespeare solved.

Thos. C. Budd—Shakespeare’s Sonnets.

B. Corney—Sonnets of Shakespeare.

Sir W. Cornwallis—Sonnets of Shakespeare.

[Ignatius Donnelly—The Sonnets of Shakespeare: an Essay.

Nathan Drake—Shakespeare and his Times.

Wm. Godwin—Life of Chaucer, [V-41.

T. J. Graham—Key to Shakespeare’s Sonnets.

G. G. Gervinus—Shakespeare Commentary.

John Gilbert—Shakespeare’s Songs and Sonnets. Staun-
ton’s Shakespeare’s Songs and Sonnets.

J. A. Heraud—Temple Bar, April, 1862, Vol. V-53.

E. A. Hitehcock—Remarks on Sonnets of Shakespeare (as
Hermetic Writings).

H. N. Hudson—Life, Art, and Character of Shakespeare.

Sir Henry James—Sonnets Photozincographed from origin-
al MS., 1862. e

Gerald Massey—Shakespeare’s Sonnets. Quarterly Review,
1864, No. 230.

F. T. Palgrave—Songs and Sonnets.

R. Simpson—Introduction to Philosophy of Shakespeare’s
Sonnets.

Howard Staunton—Songs and Sonnets.

American Review, 6-304. Christian Examiner, 5th Series,
9-403. London Quarterly Review, 1864—-II-224. Poetical
Works of Shakespeare and Surrey. Sonnets of Wm. Shake-
speare, London, 1859. Sonnets: fac-simile of original edition.

ot de

Westminster Review, July, 1857.

H. H. MORGAN.

The Western.

MAKARIA.

A PLAY IN FIVE ACTS.
8S. STERNE.

Dramatis Persone.

DEMOPHOON—King of Athens, son of Theseus.
JoLaus—Nephew of Hercules, and Leader of the Heraclides.
Aprastus—Son of Jolaus’s friend, and under his protection.
ALKMENE—Mother of Hercules.

Maxkarta—Daughter of Hercules.

THe Heraciipes—His Sons.

Kropgus—Herald to King Eurystheus.

Mitos—An Old Athenian.

Tue Priestess, at Delphi.

Messengers, Women, Citizens of Athens, $c.

ACT Il.

Scene l. The Market-place. Jovaus, ApRastus and the HERACLIDES.

Mak. Nay but my Brothers !
Were then this noble City and her King
So most magnanimous to undertake
For us a bloody war, to freely give
Hundreds of her beloved sons to death,
To save the sons of Hercules, and ’mid
His children should there not one life be found
Prepared to sacrifice itself for them,
To make their victory sure ?—the victory
Shall be our gain as theirs?—Surely, my Brothers,
We were ourselves not worthy of protection,
Of all the generous hospitality
We have received from this dear town, not worthy
To bear the name of our immortal Father,
Did we but hesitate in this !—In vain

att Nia Ss eet

aera Tic os ent Li

pict Deri vas abana ne aie A ieee Bae Sr

n

Makaria.

You seek some argument wherewith to oppose me,

And turn me from my purpose,—you can find none!

So look no further,—for believe me, Brothers,

*T were unavailing !—And I pray you too,

Cease now from all complaints!—I say again

Most cheerfully and full of joy, I give

My life for you.—(Encounters Adras’s gaze again, hesitates and turns
from him, while he changes his position, and in a short time faces
her again,)
(Aside.) Nay, what is this !—wherefore

Does his sirange gaze cut off my speech and breath.

Spread like a skilful net wherein my words

Trip and are tangled and grow suddenly faint?—

must not, dare not look on him again !— (Recovers herself but
grows more and more restless, and speaks more and more breath-
lessly).
(Aside.) My life for you, if thereby I might serve you !—
For, my dear Brothers, and all you kind Friends,
Who stand about me here with sorrowful brows,
Life seems not so most priceless thing to me
I should bethink me long to give it up
In such a cause !—Perchance am I too young,
Too shortly with it here, to yet have learned
To love it well, find it so kind companion,
So dear a friend, it cut me to the heart
To part from it again !—How this may be
I know not!—know but that the earth holds naught
Could make it passing sweet to rest here longer.
Or passing hard to go!—No happy future,
No love or lover, or no—(Encounters Adras’s eye again, hesitates
and stops).
Dem. O Makaria !—
—(Aside.) O here’s the knell in truth, to all my hopes!
Adras. (aside. )
What is’t he mutters there !—Ho, and what eyes
Fixes on her!
Mak. (suddenly rushing to Dem. and putting both her hands into
his. )

The Western.

Save me, save me, my King!
Dem. Save you!—What fear you? what is this, Makaria?
Mak. (recovering.)
Naught, naught !—A sudden feebleness !—’Tis past!
Adras. (aside.) F
I’st then to that I drove her!—O by heaven,
And had I known she would seek refuge there,
I'd plucked out these offending eyes, rather
Than gaze at her !—How she does lean on him,—
O happy King!—How close he clasps her hands,—!
O cursed, most insufferable sight!

Dem. 1s it perchance that you repent of this

Swift step,—that a sudden fear,—Nay, by the gods,

I swear, you shall not—
Mak. O no, no, my King!

I pray vou say not so!—It was not that,—

My heart knows naught of fear in this, nor yet,—

[ conjure you let me proceed ! — iy
Dem. O would

That I might save you from yourself!
Mak. But let 4

My hands rest here in yours for yet a moment,

It gives me strength to speak.
Dem. O sweet Makaria!

O and all this had never been, had you :

Lent but more willing ear unto my prayers!
Mak. (proceeding)—

No golden hopes, nor yet grave cares and duties,

Such as perhaps might hold another fast

With thousand twining tendrils, bind me here.

There is but Grandam,—and of her, I know,

The King, our noble Friend, will have good care ¢

Unto the end of her long, aged days, i

That cannot now be distant,—and yourselves

My Brothers, that are passing dear to me, 4

Have need of me, and claim upon my love— 4
Dem. (sotto voce.) And 1, Makaria?

Adras. (aside.) O and yet another,

tS ith Bt tet a Sk BOER

evanictebocies

Makaria.

Another yet has need of thee, sweet Maid,

More need I swear, than all the world beside !
Mak. (withdrawing her hands from the King’s.)
And unto you dying [ am more helpful,
Than living [ could be in hundred years !— :
Take then my life I pray you!—this small gift
Freely as it is freely offered you,
And say no more, nor weep for me, my Brothers !
Jol. Aye by great Jove, my Daughter, you have spoken
Worthy of the immortal blood you sprang from,
Have proved yourself in truth your Father’s child !—
My aged heart swells high with pride, hearing
Your noble words, perceiving so brave soul
In your young bosom, what and if my eyes
Weep your untimely fate !—The fate wherefrom
I verily perceive no issue !—For
In this too have you said too well, we find
But little argument wherewith to oppose you,
Save the loud outery of our hearts !—
Hers. Great gods!
O our sweet Sister!
Adras. (aside). O by heavens and earth!
Jol. And so do we accept—
Dem. Nay hold !—not so
All easily will we yield her to that fate,
Wherefrom methinks I do perceive an issue !
Let all the Virgins of most noble blood
Here in the town, assemble, and cast lots,
And so impartial destiny decide
Who in the common cause shall give her life.
If then there fall to her,—What say you, Friends!
Hers and Cits. Ay, ay!—Well said!—It were well done, great
King!
Jol. Demophoon methinks—
Mak. Nay but my King,
Pray you forgive,—I would not have it so !—
Would not the lot, blind fortune might choose me!
I were so well content not thus to die,

VOL. IIl.—No. 1.—2.

The Western.

No longer freely offering up myself,—

Ah, it took half my heart away —My King
No more of this!
Dem. But yet perchance Makaria,
It were not you at all—
Jol. Demophoon
Methinks it were not well, nor pleased the gods,
We mortals intrefered in this, for surely
Some god has put this scheme into her soul,
And gave her heart to speak and execute it!
Let us then not oppose, but rather help her,
Suffer she walk the self-appointed path.
Dem. O Heaven, must | relinquish then this last
Poor chance to save her life! (Hides his face. The Hers. cry out.)
Mak. Delay no longer
But lead me to the place of sacrifice!
Crown me with garlands as you shall see fit,
Asis your want with victims offered up,
And plunge the steel swiftly into my heart,—
My soul shall willingly take flight.—But Friends,
Pray bid the women of the town go with me,
And stand about me when I die,—L would not
That the last service were performed by men.
Come !—haste you, lest the enemy be upon us
Ere we complete the sacrifice, and thus
The oracle’s decree were vainly given you.
Come, Friends, come let us go!—Teach me—
Dem. No, no!
Not so all swiftly,!—Surely there’s no need
Of so great haste! We do submit ourselves
‘To what now seems inevitable fate,—
Adras. (aside). Inevitable fate!—O death and darkness !—
Dem. But yet with bleeding spirits !—O Makaria,
It wrings my heart to think that you.—But yet
it must not be so soon, this very hour,—
The foe will not so speedily move upon us,
We will delay until to-morrow eve.
Mak. Until to-morrow,—till to-morrow eve!—

sneaks

AB Sa

matin

Aa ce i

eas

ee

Makaria.

My King—

Dem. Nay hold, in this (ll hear no more!

Perchance till then the Oracle,—perchance

Some fortunate event till then betide,
That changed the face of things! If not

In Jove’s great name fate take her cruel

, then let

course!

—And now return, | pray you, to the Palace,

And there Makaria, may you with your

women

Prepare you for the sacrifice !—’T'were well, too,

Your Grandam learned of this from your own lips.

Mak. My Grandam,—ay, in truth, she yet knows naught!

Be it then as you say, my King,—I go!

Hers. (pressing about her.)

(Turns to go.)

Farewell, sweet Sister, O farewell, farewell!

Jol. Hush, my good Sons, lest your tears shake her courage!

She has the stoutest heart of all of you!

Mak. Nay, I shall see you yet, my Brothers dear,

W’ell say farewell not now !—(Exit, mee

Adras. (aside.) O heavenly light,

ting Adras’s eye once more.)

The earth around is dark without thy beams !

—Inevitable fate and destiny,

So they are pleased to call it, and submit

Themselves so tamely to it, and well nigh

Without a struggle !—even he, the King

:

Who if I do mistake not,—Did not rather

Have their own selves torn limb from limb, suffer

Ten thousand cruel deaths, ere see her perish,

Harm but a single hair of her sweet head !—

O curse them all, the cowards !—But I swear

By the eternal gods, and Jove their Master,

She shall not die!—And must I pluck her with

These very*hands, in sight of the wide heavens,

From off the altar of her sacrifice,

From out the jaws of crue) death, and from

‘The grasp of these same fierce, exacting gods,—

—Hold !—She shall live until to-morrow eve !—

—Perchance there yet were time,—perchance the gods,—

And surely Father Jolaus until then

Can you

Adras.

Hers.

Dem. I have bethought myself
To send to Delphi three swift messengers,
Loaded with precious gifts to all the Priests,
Once more to question of the Oracle
If *twere not possible after some fashion
To mend, to modify this dread decree,
If naught could move the gods to be content
With other sacrifice, to graciously
Accept of other life, and save but this
So dear to all of us !—There yet is barely
Enough time left for going and returning
Before to-morrow eve, if they I send
Do make all haste,—I must away to see

They be dispatched at once !—( Exit, followed by many of the people.)

O noble thought, great King !—The gods be with you!
Jol. Aye, aye, | would her young life might be spared,—
Yet I much fear me ’tis not well, not well!

The Western.

Did easily spare me!—(aside to a Citizen. )

tell me Friend,

Where goes the way to Delphi ?
Cit. (pointing.) ‘To the northward,
There o’er those jutting rocks whose tops you see.

Thanks, my good Friend! (Exit.) j

O most wise King!

Dante’s Purgatorio.

DANTE’S PURGATORIO.

ART IN PURGATORIO.

F we define the character of the Inferno as the world of
the Sensuous, that of Purgatorio as the mingling of the
Sensuous with Spirit, of the Paradiso as Pure Spirit, we can
understand why the poet should show us on the rocky walls of
the first terrace of the mount of expiation on the ground over
which the suffering souls drag their burden, works of the art
of sculpture.

Purgatorio presents the process of the cancellation of the
Sensuous by its transformation through Spirit. In the works
of art the material, the sensuous element, is mastered by
Spirit and transformed into ideal shape.

In the Purgatorio the Sensuous is pervaded by divine
grace. While in the lower world the grossest sensuous spec-
tacle is presented to our eyes—loathsome crime and abhor
rent punishment—while the poet paints there in the most ma-
terial colors lowest material existence, the nature of Purgato-
rio bears the more spiritual appearance of a work of art; for
it shows the material world of rock and marble in an ennobled
form and pervaded by Spirit. Hence the works of art which
we find in these circles, seem to speak to the suffering souls.

The poet tacitly recognizes thereby the moral and elevating
influence which art has. This artistic element extends through
Purgatorio. The marble steps are polished, the colors selec-
ted with care. The scenes are presented with the touch of
artistic power. The wall is covered with sculptures so per-
fect that Dante mistrusts his ears when they deny that the
figures are speaking; he is astonished that the rising clouds
of frankincense are perceptible to his sense of sight alone.

22 The Western.

The gradual cancellation of the sensuous element which
the Purgatorio shows is perceptible in the nice gradations of
these art-works in the several circles. In the first circle, the
material of the work of art in which the pictures of humility
are presented to the souls of the proud, is marble. In the
next circle pictures, representing objects of charity are placed
before the eyes of the shadows that expiate the sin of envy.
The images are as touching as those in the lower circle—but
their material is less sensuous. In the former circle the ma-
terial was marble—here it is a voice; ‘I am Orestes,” trem-
bles in the air, and before our mind stands the picture where
Pylades rushes forth with that exclamation to shield his
friend from the rage of the king by letting the punishment
fall upon himself. In the second circle we see again images,
but here their material is neither marble nor a voice in the air,
the sensuous element in the image is cancelled altogether,
and an incorporeal vision arises before us.

In this gradation the cancellation of the sensuous element
is continued, finally to be completed in Paradiso.

PUNISHMENT IN THE PURGATORIO.

In determining the place for the shadows, Dante proceeds
rigidly according to the teachings of the church. The Pur-
gatorio and Paradiso are reserved for the Christian world;
none can enter there except those who died in Christian
faith, and repented their sins while living. The lower
world was assigned to the Christian sinners who had died
without repenting the crimes of their lives, and to the inno-
cent Pagan world. No matter how wise and noble a Pagan
character appears, his place is in the Inferno. Ascension in-
to Paradiso and Purgatorio is for those alone who died
as Christians, after a pure life, or at least after thorough re-
pentance: to this principle Dante rigidly adheres.

23

Dante’s Purgatorio.

In the Inferno there is suffering without end or hope, and

no future salvation is promised. In Purgatorio the punish-
ment is limited, and is soothed by the certainty of an ap-
proaching period when the suffering of the soul will end in
everlasting bliss. Punishment is of a purifying character ; and
as the will of the shadow is tending toward purification it
wishes for the punishment which alone can remove the stain
which crime and sin have left on the soul. So, instead of re-
sisting or escaping the torments of the place, which the shad-
ows in the Inferno attempt, although they are guarded by
demons, the souls of the Purgatorio carefully watch thems
selves that the purifying pain does not cease for a moment
to touch their bodies. When Dante in the seventh circle
speaks td the suffering sinners, he says—

Then toward me as far as they could come,

Came certain of them always with regard

Not to step forth where they would not be burned.

Purg. XXVI. 14.

In the Purgatorio the will of the soul and its suffering are
not at variance, the shadows wish to suffer because they
know the purifying effect of pain. In the Inferno we shud-
der at the aimless nature of the torture; in the Purgatorio
there lies in the punishment divine kindness. In the Inferno
demons hold sway; in the Purgatorio the mind is self*deter-
mined. In the Inferno the punishment is a continuation of
the state of the guilty soul. The torments within the mind
which crime engenders, the poet presents as external torture.
The heart of the passionate is moved by passion hither and
thither; so we find them in the Inferno as helpless shadows
drifting powerless in the wind like dry leaves. It is the state
of the passionate soul during life, objectified and described
in the language of poetry. To the miser his gold is a burden;
the task of his life is to handle it with ever renewed anxiety

24 The Western.

and labor. In the Inferno, therefore, we find the misers rolling
huge blocks without intermission. They found their highest
task in the occupation with the burden of unused wealth, hence
the Inferno perpetuates their lives. Here too is immortality,
but it is the immortality of the Inferno. There is no reform in
the Inferno, the sins of life cling to the soul.

Punishment in Purgatorio forms not a continuation of
the past offense, but stands usually in sharp contrast to it.

The gluttons are cleansed by abstinence while the feeling
of hunger and thirst lasts. The envious by the pictures of
love. The proud and haughty bear heavy burdens that make
them stoop to the ground. (Purg. XIX, 118.)

In the Inferno we have the continuation of crime ; in the Pur-
gatorio its cancellation by the antithesis of self- willed penance.
RELIGIOUS DOCTRINE OF THE DIVINE COMEDY.

All works of art at Dante’s time were of religious and Chris-
tian character; the arts flourished in proportion to their use-
fulness for the life of the Church. Hence architecture, the
church-building art, had achieved the. highest degree of per-
fection at a time when Christian painting and sculpture were
still in their infancy. It is sometimes difficult to believe that
pictures in which the persons are types of gorgeous ugliness
were painted at the time when the great Basilicas of Italy were
built, which even to-day inspire with admiration the fastidious
eye of the modern critic.

Dante’s poem is eminently a religious one, it is the begin-
ning of Christian poetry in the vernacular. He foreshadows
in many respects peculiarities of the great art-period which
arose in Italy in the centuries following Dante’s, and whose
height the art of later days has not been able to attain.
If Dante’s art gives to earth-born Beatrice a divine character,
we find an analogy to this in the fact that Raphael painted
his love in the picture of the Madonna.

a

Dante’s Purgatorio. 25

Taking into consideration the general influence of the doc-
trines of Thomas Aquinas on the time, we can trace the relig-
ious doctrine that pervades the whole of the Divine Comedy.

Dante first impresses it upon the senses of the reader by the
pictures of gloomy Inferno and of lower Purgatorio, and then,
beginning with the sixteenth book, this doctrine is present-
ed by direct teaching. Virgil, the type of worldly philosophy,
instructs Dante, and through him the reader, in all that human
reason can know, and refers him for higher knowledge to
Beatrice, or the divine messenger.

Considered from the religious side Purgatorio is a complete
system of the Thomistic doctrine of redemption or justifica-
tion expressed by poetical pictures. It will be sufficient to
point out a few of the many striking instances to prove the
correctness of this assumption. Thomas Aquinas teaches
that the soul that has sinned cannot repent by its own inher-
ent power. The helping grace of God—the gratia operans—
and the will of the soul both are necessary. Hence before
the poet enters the portals of Purgatorio where the act of jus-
tification begins, Lucia, a divine messenger, appears and takes
Dante while he is sleeping to the threshold of Purgatory.
This is the poetical way of expressing the doctrine of Aqui-
nas, that without any activity of the soul divine, helpful
grace leads to the beginning of justification.

The description of the entrance to Purgatorio is full of po*
etical beauty and scholastic allegory. (Purg. LX. lines 73 to 114.)
We understand the meaning which the poet wishes to put
into this description if we look at Thomas Aquinas’ doc-
trine of justification. He says that justification begins
with contrition, which again has three parts, self-confes-
sion of the sin, contrition itself, and the will to do pen-
ance. Hence Dante lets three steps lead to Purgatorio:

26 The Western.

the first is of pure and shining marble, indicating the truth of
confession; the second, cracked all asunder lengthwise and
across, is the emblem of contrition, which word Aquinas holds,
from its derivation, to mean a grinding, as it were, of the soul.
The third step intimates the pain of penance—it is red like
blood.

The angel guarding the entrance to Dante’s Purgatorio, un-
locks the gate with two keys. The attire of the angel is gray
as ashes—the symbolic color of the grief of repentance. (IX.
115-129.) Now we read in Thomas Aquinas that there are two
keys that unlock heaven: the one he calls scientia discernendi,
which shows who is worthy of admission and who is not; the
other is potestas judicandi, or the power to open or close
the gates of heaven. When we know this, it is not difficult to
see what the poet means when he says that while one key is
more precious, the other is more difficult to use, requiring
more art and intellect.

When Dante enters, the angel draws upon his head the
letter P, seven times, emblematic of the seven deadly sins.
The allegorical meaning points at the external confession of
sin. Aftereach circle of penance, through which Virgil and
Dante pass, one of the letters vanishes.

Purgatorio and Paradiso have this religio-poetic charac-
ter throughout. The leading idea is one that is not unlike
some of the religious views of our days. Human science,
represented by Virgil, leads to the Inferno, and may by divine
help lead to the Purgatorio and the terrestrial paradise; but
truth dwells nowhere but in the face of God, to which reveal-
ed religion alone can lead. Hence human wisdom vanishes
in the presence of divine revelation. When Dante turns
his eyes from Beatrice, whom he meets in the terrestrial para-
dise on the mountain of Purgatorio, he finds that Virgil, his

ete

hid Cline tre, Mr

Sagat toe 2 lll ate CASAS AP Me PE

Dante’s Purgatorio.

faithful guide, has disappeared.

The last five cantos of the Purgatorio, which are devoted to
the description of the earthly paradise, have the greatest po-
etical power. They form the closing scene of the mount of
expiation. Paradise is open to those that have become pure
of heart again in the circles of the Purgatorio. The earthly
paradise, lost by sensuous pleasure, may be regained by sen-
suous pain. Here Beatrice, the long-sought-for descends, pre-
ceded by a gorgeous pageant symbolic of the books of the Bi-
ble, of the Church, and Christ. Here the allegory assumes
the mystic character of an apocalypse of poetry.

Through this paradise flow Lethe and Eunoe. From the first
the poet drinks forgetfulness of all earthly thought, while
the waters of Eunoe revive in him the recollection of all things
that are good and joyful. This indeed would be paradise on
earth to forget pain and sorrow and “remember happier

,

things.” Self-forgetfulness is the happiness in store for those
that cancel in themselves the sensuous element in lower Purga-
torio by fixing their will on the future state of bliss. It is the
Brahmin’s doctrine who turns his life from the world without
to look within, and lets his thoughts rest upon Brahma in
order to find relief from the Inferno of the senses. It is the

Christian Nirwana.

THE PAGAN ELEMENT IN THE DIVINE COMEDY.

That the poet, whois eminently Christian, should have placed
Lethe, the river of the heathen world of shadows, in the terres-
trial paradise, is peculiar. But we find a strong vein of Pa-
gan element throughout the whole poem. Dante uses the name
Jupiter occasionally for the Christian God, or tells us of
“sweet Apollo dying on the Cross.” The Inferno is a kind of
continuation of the 6th Book of the Aeneid, of the 9th Book

28 The Western.

of the Odyssey, in which the dreary abode of the shadows is
described by mortals that descended thither. In the In-
ferno there has been no rotation in office since the time of the
ancients. We find there Minos, the terrible judge of the mis-
erable shadows, Charon and his skiff, Acheron and Cerberus.
But this is not a peculiarity of Dante; it is the common attri-
bute of early Christian Architecture, Sculpture and Painting,
to use the materials of Pagan art to express Christian ideas.
It is somewhat like the churches of Rome built of the pre-
pared material taken from tottering ancient temples.

If we look at one of the most beautiful specimens of early
Christian art, the wall paintings in the Catacombs of St. Calix-
tus, we find an analogy to this mingling of Pagan and Chris-
tian elements. In the centre panel of these paintings we find a
picture of Christ, represented as Orpheus playing the lyre,
surrounded by symbolic animals. In Christian architecture
we find the mingling of Pagan elements likewise. In the ear-
ly plan of Christian church building, the basilica, we recog-
nize the rectangle, the colonade, the general features of the
Pagan temple.

There seems to be an intentional antithesis sometimes in
the way in which Dante places ancient and modern images side
by side, or lets the Christian voice be followed by a Pagan
antistrophy. In the circle where images of love are held up
to the souls cleansing themselves from envy, we hear the voice
from the love-feast of Canaan—**Vinum non habent” —
which is fullowed by its beautiful Pagan antistrophy, the
voice of Pylades, sacrificing himself for his friend with “I
am Orestes;” and then again the Christian voice, “* Love
those from whom ye have had evil.”

The recognition of this Pagan element is apt to mislead to
the belief that the Divine Comedy is an imitation of some class-
ical model. There could be no greater mistake than this.

Dante’s Purgatorio. 29

We find some of the paraphernalia of antiquity, but the
poem is all medieval. Whatever merit may be awarded to the
poet, none is better established than that of unique originality.
He follows Virgil as a leader and appears to draw his inspi-
ration from him, but his work is the completest antithesis
to Virgil in conception, execution and expression. The Infer-
no, indeed, betrays its antique origin in the sternness of his
laws. The principle of an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth,
is there depicted as ifit were the dark Hades of the Fates.
But the Purgatorio and Paradiso are far removed from the
conceptions of the Roman and the Greek mind. In ancient
poetry guilt lived forever, and was the mysterious heir-loom
of doomed generations; but the good principle had the short
existence of a meteor. Dante infuses into the forms of antiqui-
ty the spirit of his own genius, and hence we see in the very
first Christian poem the process completed which Christian
painting and plastic art after the endeavor of a thousand
years began to develop: the mastery of classical form with-
out defacing or destroying the individuality of modern
time.

In the first works of Christian art we notice entire depen-

dence on the classical model which is imitated with more or
less successful slavish exactness. Then, for a long time, the
classical model is conventionalized, and the painting of the
3yzantine period is the result, in which representation has
been conventionalized so far that it is no likeness of anything
in heaven or earth. The classical origin is still traceable in
externalities—as for instance in the arrangement of the gar-
ment and its folds.

The reaction against Byzantine conventionalism in art bee
gan in the time preceding Dante. The study of the antique
was revived; ancient form was now mastered and not merely
copied and conventionalized. The new spirit had acquired

30

The Western.

sufficient strength to subject the classical material to its aims
This process appears strongest in the works of Nicola Pisano,
in which medieval thought and classical naturalness are har-
moniously blended. In the Divine Comedy, there appears
the same element asin Pisano’s sculptures. It is a thorough-
ly medieval work of art, exhibiting the refining influence of
the classics without detriment to distinctive individuality.

Dante’s poem is a composite work of art; a large, uniform
structure in which the niches are filled with a series of pic-
tures. While Longfellow has compared the Divine Comedy
with the Gothic minster, it bears a closer resemblance to the
old Christian Basilica. In the Gothic structure the pillars
carry the roof, and the walls, relieved from their burden, are
broken by cheerful windows, which take the place of the
wall pictures with which the Basilica is covered, where an
unbroken wall bears the superstructure. There appear in
long rows the sacred wall paintings on which the eyes of
the pious dwell with reverence. Into Dante’s work, with
all its uniformity of design, the lore of Greek, Latin, and
Arabie learning, the philosophy, religion, and science of
his age, have poured together their imagery of medieval and
classical times. It is a structure like some medieval church
of the Normans in southern Italy, where the changing
dominion of many a nation had left the plan of church architec-
ture Greek, while the dome above the transept and the orna-
mented massive pillars were Byzantine. In the same building
Arabic influence is manifest in the pointed arch ; and to make
the mixture complete a tower and facade is added by the
hand of the Norman.

The Divine Comedy is in strict keeping with the plastic art
of its time—the analogy is striking in whatever respect we con-
sider it. As a poetical work of art, however, it stands alone.

Dante’s Purgatorio. 31

It is by its nature removed from Milton’s Paradise and from
Klopstock’s Messiah, which deal with kindred subjects. It
contains elements of the Drama. The idea of both, the

drama and the Divine Comedy, is the subjection of caprice to
rationality. The drama shows this in regard to the the ethical,
the Divine Comedy in regard to the moral world. The irrational
act of the individual may just avoid the collision with the
state, society or family ; but it cannot escape the collision with
the moral law, which, in its fearful consequences is depicted in
the Inferno. In the King C£dipus of Sophocles, the guilt
which leads to the collision, lies outside of the scope of the play;
in the Divine Comedy the crime itself lies beyond it ; and,
as in the Greek drama, we are summoned to witness the terrible
punishment. In tragedy the external act of the individual
leads to a collision with the external institutions and the ex-
ternal existence of the individual is destroyed. Here the col-
lisions of the moral nature with moral laws are shown, and
the result is, that the essence of moral and ethical nature,
freedom, is cancelled. There is no self-determination in the
Inferno. The drama depicts the collision of crime— the
Divine Comedy that of Sin: the drama exhibits the power
of ethical laws—the Divine Comedy the infinity of justice.
Let us, in conclusion, cast a last look at the personal signitfi-
cation which this song of many meanings had for Dante him-
self, the wandering exile. Home had cast him out and hope
forsaken him. The siren of the world approached him, and
he forgot bis pain in the wild sansara of sensuous enjoyment.
He forgot Beatrice; he forgot his genius. Soon the animal
passions that beset his existence rise against him. Here the
Inferno opens. Dante is at the entrance that leads to eternal
perdition, chased into it by his passions. But his art, poetry,
saves him. It leads him through the Inferno of sin to the
Purgatorio of a pure life of repentance, by arousing in him

32 The Western.
the thought of Beatrice, the departed one, with whom the re-
-igion of revelation promised to unite him in Paradiso. In
this solace of religion and in the meeting of Beatrice, the
friend of his youth, the weary wanderer finds “the peace that

passeth understanding.”
L. F. SOLDAN.

TWO ROMANCE LANGUAGES.

‘aco French and Provencal are members of that group of
languages which derives its origin from the ancient
speech of Rome. The land which now bears the name of
France was inhabited. at one time by a people, probably of
Turanian affinities, who under the names of Iberian and Ligu-
rian, held not only France, but the larger portion of the
Spanish and Italian peninsulas, and whose representatives
exist to-day under the name of Basques or Euskarians.

These people were gradually supplanted by the Aryan
Kelts, who either destroyed them or forced them into remote
corners of the country, and at the coming of Julius Cesar, in
58 B.C., the land which he knew as Gaul was held by three
powerful tribes. Of these the Gauls and Belgians seem to
have been identical in race and of pure Keltic stock, the
Aquitanians had received some infusion of I[beric blood.

The powerful Greek city of Massalia, which was founded in
the sixth century B.C., by Phocewan Greeks, and which at one
time was an ally, on equal terms, of Rome, fell at last before
that all-acquiring State, and in the second century before
Christ the Roman province of Trans-alpine Gaul reached from

33

Two Romance Languages.

sea on the south, northward to Lake Leman, and west-
ward to Toulouse; less than a century more and Julius Ca-
sar had carried the Roman eagle to the Rhine and the German
ocean and founded a dominion that endured for nearly five
hundred years.

These slowly moving centuries Romanized the land ; laws,
customs, speech and religion were those of the conquerors,
and the Gaul retained nothing of his birthright, save the
blood, that, spite of some foreign admixture, Italian and Teu-
tonic, predominates in the veins of the modern Frenchman
as of the Romanized Kelt, and manifests itself in the same
national characteristics in the new Gaul as in the old. Pa-
ganism passed away from the Roman Empire, the government
itself changed in spirit and in form, and as Rome changed so
did Gaul, whose inhabitants now bore the title of Roman citi-
zens. Roads, theatres, aqueducts, temples of the old faith and
the new, schools and courts of law, attested the wide-spread
civilization of the Roman, and Gaul is called by Juvenal “the
nurse of lawyers.”

In the fifth century the Teutonic nations began their
migrations into the empire and effected various settle-
ments; in eastern Gaul arose the kingdom of the Burgundians;
the Visigoths held Aquitaine and nearly all of Spain, while
northern Gaul was seized upon by the invading tribes who
were to deprive herofher name, the Franks. To the Romans
there remained ashort lease of power in the centre of the prov-
ince, which however soon cametoan end. Not so the effects
of their long ruie; nearly five centuries of Roman government
had stamped the Roman civilization too deeply upon the peo-
ple for it to be swept away, even by the fierce tide of Teutonic
conquests; but the name of Gaul has been finally dis-
placed by the name of the invaders. Franken(in Latin, Fran-
cia, was the name applied to the immediate Frankish territory
VOL. IlI—NO. 1—3.

34 The Western.

on both sides of the Rhine—a name which survives to-day in
France and Franconien.

In 888 west France and east France fell asunder at the dep-
osition of Charles the Fat, and were never again united, al-
thongh the western kingdom paid subjection to the eastern.
In 987, the direct line of the Karling kings of the west Franks
having become extinct, the nobles, mostly Gallic in blood and
absolutely Romance in speech, chose as their king Hugh
Capet, Duke of France, a descendant of the famous Odo, Count
of Paris, and With his accession begins the story of the mod-
ern kingdom of France. The capital of the French king was
transferred from the rocky fortress of Laon to the rising city
of Paris, which with Orleans and some forty leagues of sur-
rounding territory had constituted the Duchy. The newking
of the French, as the self-constituted heir of the Karlings,
claimed suzerainty over all Gaul, but he was quite unable
to enforce his authority, and south of the Loire his very ex-

istence was almost forgotten by the great lords and wealthy

cities where the rival speech was fast growing into a language

of literature and culture.

But the French kingdom grew; by marriage, by conquest,

by means legal and illegal, the various duchies and counties

fell before the encroachments of the Parisian overlord; Nor-

mandy, Aquitaine, Burgundy, Provence, were forced to become

integral parts of the state which we recognize to-day by the’

name of the ancient duchy, and the king and the speech of

Paris finally won for themselves undisputed supremacy
throughout the land.

Let us now consider somewhat more at length one effect of
the Roman rule in Gaul; the production, namely, within that
province of two new and distinct languages.

And, first, we would call attention to the fact that the Lat-
in language was itself divided into two dialects, the sermo no-

Two Romance Languages. 35

bilis, the language of literature and polite life, the classic
Latin of Horace and Cicero; and the lingua vulgaris, or rus-
tica, the speech of the common soldiery and the peasants ; the
latter being, in its turn, broken into a multitude of varying
forms, preserving some of the remains even of the early Oscan.
Such a division may be found in every tongue, and the more
the two orders of society are separated, the wider is the diver-
gence of their speech.

In the 2d century before Christ, the conquest of Greece
brought the Young Rome of the day completely under the in-
tellectual sway of the vanquished nation; the city swarmed
with teachers of Greek, and the first Greek grammar, that of
Dionysius Thrax, was written for the purpose of teaching that
language- to the eager youth of Rome. Greek art and litera-
ture made up for themselves a new home, and the stern-
er deities of Rome bowed before the graceful presence of the
gods of Greece.

The Scipios and others became enthusiastic Hellenists, and
even the severe Cato found himself compelled to learn the very
language he denounced. The consequence of all this was
that the literary Latin came to hold an enormous stock of
words and phrases, as the literary class came to possess
ideas which never descended into the speech or the thoughts of
lower orders, and even the grammatical forms underwent
many changes.

Now while the sermo nobilis was the speech of the Gallo-
Roman noble, of the courts of law, and of worship, the peas-
antry learned to speak only the lingua rustica, and from that
dialect is derived the whole group of languages, French, Pro-
vencal, Spanish, Italian, etc., which we are wont to class to-
gether as the Roman or Romance tongues.

The two languages of Gaul derived their names from the
word in each signifying yes, and were called respectively the

36 The Western.

Langue d’oil (oi, oui) and the Langue d’oc; oi! and oc being
both derived from the Latin words hoe illud. This method of
designating language was not peculiar to the tongues above
mentioned; [Italian being called the tongue of si by Dante.

Of other than Latin influence brought to bear upon either
language, the least perceptible is the Iberic, of which a few
words remain in the Provencal, derived mainly from the Bas-
que; Keltic has left many traces of itself, principally coming
however through the Latin; as, for instance, the Keltic word
alauda, a lark, adopted into Latin without change, became in
Old French aloue, modern French alouette; the English word
budget, is another instance of this; Keltic bulga, a leathern
bag, became Latin bulga, Old French boulge, bouge, New
French bougette, English budget.

Keltic also has supplied certain sounds, and, like the Ger-
man, has often cast a foreign tinge upon Latin words.

Very slight is the influence of Greek, and that mainly
through the Latin, upon the speech of Roman Gaul. None
the less there were found in the sixteenth century etymolo
gists who asserted that the French was derived almost wholly
from the Greek, “with,” says one, “alittle Hebrew and Latin.”
The only direct importations from the Greek were ecclesiasti-
cal terms and some seafaring phrases brought by Crusaders
from Byzantion.

“French is derived from the popular Latin,” said the clear-
sighted Goethe, and closer study proves the truth of his state-
ment. Wherever the same thought is expressed by a differ
ent word in the classic and the vulgar Latin, the French has
retained the latter. The instances are numberless, and we
subjoin a few as illustrations.

Classic Latin. Vulgar Latin. French.

Hebdomas. Septimana. Semaine.

Two Romance Lauguages.

Equus. Caballus. Cheval.
Pugna. Battalia. Bataille.
Osculari. Basiare. Baiser.
Urbs. Villa. Ville.
Felis. Catus. Chat, ete.

We learn from this that the Romance tongues are not, as
has been said, bad Latin. They are the children, not of the
classic Latin, the speech of the poets, the priests and the law-
yers, but of the popular Latin, slowly developing under vary-
ing influences and on the lips of various nations, into the lan-
guages of Southern Europe.

“ This,” says Brachet, “is the cause of the striking resem-
blance between the New Latin,” or as the Germans say, Ro-
mance languages ; they are sisters;

“Facies non omnibus una, Nec diversa tamen, qualem decet
esse sororum.”

The conversion of the Franks to Christianity, and their in-
tercourse with the Romanized Gauls of Neustria, soon wrought
@ change in the language of the dominant race, who laid
aside, at length, their own tongue for that of their subjects.
They poured into the Romance speech however a flood of
words, notably those relating to military life and to their own,
Teutonic, political forms. Alod, marahscalh, siniscalh, passing
into the Vulgar Latin as alodium, mariscallus, siniscallus, be-
came in French alleu, marechal and seneschal; halberec became
hanbert , helm, heaume, etc. The invasions served also to
modify the syntax, many grammatical endings being lost, to
be supplied, in the inflection of nouns, by an increasing use of
prepositions.

There are also many words which are neither German nor
Latin, but are literal translations of German into Roman
speech. For instance the German word for future is Zukunft,
the to come. Failing, perhaps, to remember the proper Latin

38 The Western.

equivalent, some adventurer in language translated it liter-
ally by @ venir, and l’avenir is the monument of his linguistic
enterprise to-day. So in German gegend, is the land which is
over against us, before our eyes; the German gegen answers
to the Latin contra, and a free translation has given us the
Latin contratum, French contrée, English country.

The missionaries were the first to recognize the difference
between the literary and the vulgar tongues as amounting to
a real difference of language, and in 660 A. D., we find the
Bishop of Noyon owing his election to the fact that he under-
stood not only German but the lingua Romana also. The ear-
liest specimens of the vulgar tongue are to be found in the

Glossary of Reichenau, a glossary of the more difficult words
in a translation of the Bible, which dates from the time of
Charles the Great.

Charles, himself, enlightened beyond ‘his day, displayed his
wisdom and his care for his people by an ordinance compel-

ing the clergy to preach in the language of those to whom
their sermons were addressed, and recognized in his Gallic do-
ninions the new speech then struggling into being.

When the heirs of the Karling kingdoms met at Strassburg in
842, to confirm the treaty of Verden, Lewis the German was
forced to address the Neustrian army in the Langue d’oil, and
this, the famous oath of Strassburg is the first extant specimen,
save the glossary, of the French language. When, in the next
century, Rolf, the Norseman, swore allegiance to the West-
Frankish king, Charles the Simple, he began with the invoca-
tion By Got; whereat the rude barons around Charles cried
out, amid jeers and laughter, that he was talking English.

As the speech of Roman Gaul had early parted into, or
rather had consisted from the first of two distinct idioms, so
the Langue d’oil itself consisted, in the Middle ages, of four
dialects, the Picard, the Burgundian, the Norman and the

Two Romance Languages. 39

French. These dialectic differences however did not affect
the syntax but merely the verbal forms, e.g., the Latin
amabam became among the Burgundians of the twelfth centua-
ry améve, among the Normans amoue, among the French, or
the dwellers in the Isle of France, amoie ; the words seeming
to contract as they approach the North and to expand beneath
the southern sun.

The history of the French monarchy is a history of the
French language also; the little kingdom, which, at the ac-
cession of Hugh Capet in 987, comprised the cities of Paris
and Orleans, with some forty leagues of surrounding terri-
tory, gradually enlarged its borders; one after another the
great feudal holdings fell before a suzerainty, which was once
despised, even if recognized, and as the Parisian king enforced
political dominion, the Parisian speech asserted itself as the
ruling tongue. The conquering dialect however was com-
pelled to receive some words from the conquered ; the hard ¢
of the Latin became ch in French, c in Picard, and the latter
form has now and then held its own. Norman and Burgundi-
an exercised their influence also, but the period of Lewis X1I.,
which saw the complete triumph of the royal over the bare
nial power, saw also the victory of the Parisian speech, in a
form not sufficiently different from the French of our own day
to render the language of de Comines at all difficult reading.

The Italian wars of Charles VIII. and Lewis XII.
brought into France an abundance of Italian terms, and the
influence of Catharine of Medici made every thing Italian the
fashion. Military and artistic terms crowded into the lan-
guage, while banque (banca) and similar words recall to us the
early distinction of the Lombard merchants, and remind us
how state policy placed upon the throne of France the fatal
daughter of the Florentine trader, whose armorial bearings
gi‘tter over every pawn-broker’s shop to-day.

40 The Western.

At this period came Ronsard with a mania for antiquity,
striving to thrust into the languagea host of Greek and Latin
words, of which oligochronien is an attractive specimen ; worse

still, he had followers, who, not content with manufacturing
new words, tampered with the old. The Latin otiosus gave
in old French oiseux, modern French oisif. The would-be re-
formers desired to substitute otieuz, ete.

There is nothing new under the sun, and the French Noah
Websters are of tolerably early date. Happily for the lan-
guage the greater portion of their ill-directed labors came to
naught; let us hope that we, too, may see an end of the odi-
ous innovations which would deprive our words of what has
been well called their “ patent-of nobility;” tracing whose
pedigrees step by step we discover not only an amount of lin-
guistic wealth before undreamed of, but strange lessons in
ethnology, in history, in religion, in morals.

Honour has come into our English speech not directly from
the Latin, but from the Latin through the French, and al-
though forced to assume an English garb, the u testifies to its
Norman blood. Honor did very well for the old Romans, but
#t was a cold and formal thing at the best; while honour glit-
ters and glows with all the splendor and romance of medixw-
val chivalry.

The long wars of the League and the residence of the
Spanish armies in France, brought many Spanish words into
vogue. Camaradeé, guitare, negre, créole, etc., date from the
days of Henry of Navarre.

The progress of science and an acquaintance with the lit-
erature of other nations have added largely to the French vo-
cabulary. Many of these words are borrowed from the Eng-
lish, as are also many financial, political and sporting terms,
in most cases without change of form, as jury, bill, turf, whist,
rail, etc. Oddly enough it has been observed that many of

Two Romance Languages. 41

these words were introduced into the English speech by the
Norman invasion, and have now re-crossed the channel bear-
ing the’ English stamp; such an fashion, from French facon,
tunnel, tunneau, Old French tonnel, so that the language re-
ceives to-day but what she gave centuries ago.

** Be not the first by whom the new is tried,

Nor yet the last to lay the old aside,”

is excellent advice for those who would observe the canons of
good taste, although its universal adoption might form a
pretty effectual) barrier to the growth of a language. Hap-
pily, perhaps, in this case, there is always a sufficient number
of those who neither know the right nor pursue it, and new
words will surely come. When needed to express new ideas
and shades of thought or to give names to new inventions
they will easily establish their right of citizenship, and claim
all the privileges of the native-born, but if unnecessary or
not formed in accordance with the genius of the language
they will rarely escape the death they merit.

Dialects also, the great feeders of languages, as Max Muller
calls them, are constantly sending up into the literary speech
words full of local coloring and often replete with delicate
and poetic meaning.

Languages grow, flourish and decay under the guidance of
fixed laws, which although they may be recognized and par-
tially understood are but little under the control of man. The
meaning of the words themselves varies with the varying
condition of society and the character of the peoples that
make use of them. The virtus of the Roman republican, the
virti of the Italian of the Renascence, and the virtue of the
Englishman of the nineteenth century, have widely different
significations, yet they are all derived from the Latin vir, all
meaning in one sense manliuess, yet with a difference of opin-
ion as to that in which manliness consists. So, too, honom

42 The Western.

among the Teutonic nations was another thing than the onore
of the Italians, among whom the highest ideas of chivalry
never took root. .

We observe in French two classes of words, some like mo-
bile, ration, ete., are perfect copies of thcir Latin originals,
mobilis, rationem, ete.; others derived from the same words
but in a shortened form like meuble, raison, etc. This is due
to the fact that the latter class comes from the popular, the
former from the learned speakers of the Roman tongue. This
difference of length however is merely a superficial one, and
it is by their internal characteristics that the two classes of
words are really to be distinguished.

These characteristics are: Ist, the persistence of the Latin
accent; 2d, the supression of the short vowel ; 3d, the loss of
the medial consonant.

All French words of popular origin respect the Latin ac-
cent; those which violate it are the formation of the literary
class, and are arbitrarily made in ignorance of the laws by
which nature was transforming the Roman into the French
tongue.

For example the Latin angelus, gives, in the popular
French, ange, in the learned French, angelis, Latin blasphe-

mum, popular French blame, learned French blasphéme, ete.
9 I I ? 9

Latin words contain an accented and unaccented vowel; in
French the accented vowel is retained, the unaccented vowel,
which precedes the accented is lost, as

Bonitatem, Bonté.
Sanitatem. Santé.
Circulare. Cercler; learned French, circuler.

Words of learned origin violate this law. All French words
of popular origin lose their medial consonant, those of learned
origin preserve it.

Augustus, Adéut, Auguste,

Two Komance Languages.

Hospitale, Hotel, Hopital, ete.

The popular words show by their accent that they were
formed by the ear, at a time when the Lingua Romana was
still a living, spoken language, the learned words were formed
by the eye alone. It was about the eleventh century that the
Latin accent was wholly lost and the creation of popular
French complete; henceforward the only words added to the
language were of learned origin. -

In the eyes of philologists therefore the older French is
more beautiful and even more regular than the modern, since
it is more in conformity with the laws which regulated its
formation at the beginning.

No one however would be so foolish as to desire now to do
away with the words which through long continuance and
good service have established such a linguistic position that
most of us are ignorant that they were not to the “manner
born.”

They ought not to be French words, but they are, and as
such we are compelled to regard them in spite of the defects
of their pedigree.

The poetry of the Langue d’oil is distinguished from that
of the Langue d’oc by its objective and impersonal character,
and was of two forms, the lyric and the chanson de gestes.

The chansons do not deal with the events of the day, either
public or private, but celebrate the deeds of Alexander of

Macedon, of the German Cesar, Charlemagne, or of the Brit-

ish Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table. They grew
up under many hands, and were sung far and wide, as once
the Homeric poems were recited by wandering bards. Of
ecclesiastical poetry we also have some specimens, mostly
dating from the 12th to the 15th century.

The earlier poems are in ten; the later in twelve syllable
measure, the ten syllable being the older form. In the earlier

44 The Western.

poems assonance, which consists in having the last vowel-
sound in the lines the same while the consonant-sounds differ,
was universally employed, rhyme not being introduced until the
twelfth century. The chansons were divided into couplets,
tirades or lais (leash), meaning lines closely coupled together,
drawn out, in leash, the length of the couplets being quite
variable. The masculine assonances or rhymes so called, are
those in any vowel except e.

About the end of the 12th century the French trouvéres
seem to have abandoned the habit of singing their own com-
positions, writing them for the jongleurs or gleemen to sing.
Rhyme, which addresses itself to the eye as well as the ear,
then began to be substituted for assonance, and the fact of its
use may be regarded as tolerably sure proof that the poem
was written.

The Langue d’oc attained its perfection as a literary lan-
guage, and the literature itself reached its most brilliant
period from the 11th to the 13th centuries, in the poetry of the
Troubadours. This word is derived from the Provencal trou-
bar (French trouver), to find or invent, and corresponds to the
French trouvére, Old English maker. In earlier times, the
troubadours composed the poems to be sung by the jongleurs,
wandering gleemen or minstrels, who traveled from castle to
castle, and whose desecrated name survives to-day in the
English word juggler. Later, the poets sang their own verses
in the presence of lords and ladies, and in the courts of love
nobles vied with professional troubadours in their efforts to
win the favor of the fair judges of the poetic lists.

The literature of Provence is lyric and personal; whether
the poems tell of love or war, whether they describe a coun-
try-walk or a spring morning, when all “ the birds do sing in
their Latin,” every object is considered in its relation to the
author, to its effect upon himself; his own emotions are the

Two Romance Languages. 45

mainspring of his verse. The first artistic poetry of modern
Europe is the Provencal, which finally attained a highly com-
plicated and artificial structure, the rhymes being often most
curiously and tediously involved.

But the luxurious and beautiful country of southern Gaul,
its wealthy cities, its gay lords and ladies, its literature and
its speech, were all to be involved in one vast overthrow.

The horrors of the Albigensian war, guided by the big-
otry of Innocent ITI., and the craft of Philip Augustus wasted
the land and destroyed alike its civilization and its independ-
ence. The whole literary culture of the country vanished
with its freedom, and the melodious tongue of oc, degraded
from its rightful place by its crnel step-mother the Latin,
and its wicked sister the French, fell into the position of a
patois.

Scorned as a provincial dialect by the Parisian rulers it be-

came almost forgotten, but it has not ceased to exist. In our

own time, however, the tongue that has lived on in obscurity

for so many years, is once more attracting our notice as a lit-
erary dialect. The author of Mireio and others sing in the
melodious accents of the eldest of the Romance tongues, and
she may yet resume her rightful place, no subject, but an
equal, by the side of her imperious Northern sister.

In closing this very imperfect sketch, we add, as an illus-
tration of the differences and resemblances between the
tongues of oc and oil, one stanza of a poem written during his
German captivity by Richard of Poitou, the lion-hearted
king of England. A poct himself and a lover of poets, al-
lied by blood with south and north Gaul alike, he used with
equal facility both languages, and is often spoken of by wri-
ters of the-time as the “ Lord of oc and oi.”

THE PROVENCAL VERSION.
Ja nuls hom pres non dira sa razon

The Western.

Adrechament, si com hom dolens non;
Mas per conort den hom faire canson ;
Pro n ’ay d’amis, mas paure son li don,
Ancta lur es, si per ma rezenson

Soi sai dos yvers pres.

THE FRENCH VERSION.
Ja nus hons pris ne dirat sa raison
Adroitement s ’ansi com dolans non;
Mais par confort puet il faire chanson.

Moult ai d’amins, mais povre son li don;

Houte en avront se por ma reancon
Suix ces deus yvers pris.
ANNIE WALL.

Proceedings.

PROCEEDINGS.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Dee. 4.
C. V. Riley, President, in the chair. Fifteen members present.

The Corresponding Secretary presented a number of scientific papers
which he had received, and devoted a considerable time to a discussion
of the results accomplished by the late Arctic expedition, stating that,
in his opinion, it had been far more valuable to science in the discover-
ies relative to the Arctic regions, than was generally accredited, It
had demonstrated that what had previously been called “ President’s
Land,” had really no existence whatever, a mistake having been made
in the supposed discovery. It has also demonstrated that there was no
open sea around the north pole, as had so long been supposed.

The official report to which Judge Holmes referred is to be found in
Nature, Nov. 2.

Dr. G. Eugelmann exhibited specimens of sced-bearing leaves of the
Sago palm, Cycas revoluta. The leaves proper are two or three feet
long. but when abcut to flower, the female plant puts forth from its top
smaller leaves pinnated, like the lower ones, but covered with thick
down. These wooly leaves of the female bear the germs or ovules on
the lower edges, uncovered, and thus represent an open (not closed as in
all higher plants) pistil. :

The group of plants to which the Sago palm belongs, are known by
the name of Cycadeae. In our country they are represented by the
Zamia integrifolia of South Florida, which also contains an abun-
dance of amylaceous substance in its trunk, and for this is now highly
prized by the settlers, as it was formerly an important article of food
for the aborigines.

A second and much better known family of plants, with a similar flo-
ral structure, are the Conifera, to which the Pines and Junipers be-
long.

These two families are comprised under the name of Gymnosperms,
and must be considered as the lowest type of flowering plants, only a
few degrees removed above those that propagate without proper flowers,

748 The Western.

the Cryptogams. Intimately connected with this low development
is the early appearance of such plants in the geological series, many
ages before real flowering plants make their appearance on our globe.

The cycadaceous plants are the prototypes of the monocotyledons,
and especially of the palms, and the conifers those of the dicotyledons.

Among animals the Marsupials hold a similar position to the ordin-
ary mammals, aud they are also geologically older than the more com-
plete animals which they seem to shadow forth.

Mr. Riley remarked that such facts were of great interest to the evo-
lutionist, pointing as they do to the divergence in time of the more
widely separated forms from some primitive forms, of which in the cases
cited the Sago palms and the Marsupials are the present and possibly
modified represcntatives.

Prof. Riley spoke at some length upon the * Geographical Range of
Species.” He regretted his absence at the last meeting, when his arti-
cle on “Locust Flights,” in which he argued that the Caloptenus spretus
could not permanently thrive south of the forty-fourth parallel or east
of the one hundredth meridian, was discussed, and exceptions taken to
its conclusions by Dr. Engelmann and Prof. Nipher. The subject was
an interesting onc, and the principal difficulty in the way of preperly
apprehending the facts was found in the failure in the popular mind to
discriminate between species. Dr. Engelmann had instanced the spread
of the Colorado beetle to the Atlantic; but there was a great difference
between the spread of a specics in nature and that spread which is aid-
ed or influenced by man. He was very well aware that species do
spread, and he had in his 2d Report laid particular stress upon the
different weeds and insects which have been imported from Europe. He
had also in the introduction to a little work on “ Potato Pests” now
being published, dwelt at length on the same subject; but he did nét
think that any single instance could be furnished of a species which had
in our time extended or contracted its range without the aid of man.
It was in not keeping in view this difference between the natural range
of a species and that range as uffected directly or indirectly by man
that the objection made to his paper lacked force.

By careful study of past experience of nearly a century; by weigh-
ing ul) the other conditions, he had ascribed certain eastern limits be-
yond which the Rocky Mountain Locust could not perpetuate itself or
do continued damage, and he regretted to find Dr. Engelmann, on what

Proceedings. 49

he must believe were insufficient grounds, lending the weight of his au-
thority to the opposing statement that there is not sufficient evidence for
the opinion. If he were to announce that he had discovered the
(Eneis simidea in the Mississippi Valley, or in Missouri, every well-
informed entomologist would at once declare it a mistake, and say he had
confounded it with some other butterfly, because the (/neis is known to
be confined to the Alpine regions of Labrador, and the White and Rocky
Mountains, and is absent from all the intermediate country. The classified
knowledge we have on the subject establishes certain limits outside of
which the species does not thrive, and there is every reason to believe
cannot except by man’s assistance ; and the same may be said of a whole
lot of alpine and sub-alpine plants, The same is true of many insects
and other animals.

Past experience shows that the Rocky Mountain locust can not change
its habits. It is indigenous to the sub-alphine heights of the North-
west, and its individual life is bounded by the spring and autumn frosts.
Species are sometimes found to be limited in a wonderful way to certain
areas, and it can not be explained why some can and others can not
adapt themselves to different conditions. The genuine Colorada Potato
beetle spread eastward through man’s agency, as the intermediate terri-
tory was settled. The bogus Colorado Potato beetle, however, did not,
and does not spread in the same manner, as it cannot subsist on the cul-
tivated potato.

Dr. Engelmann then said, as his name had been mentioned in the dis-
cussion, he would offer a few remarks, The potato-beetle and its allied
Doryphora, would furnish examples to sustain his views. One has
shown its ability, within the past fifteen or twenty years, to spread itself
over a wide range of country, while the other, its congener had remained
confined in its original area. Twenty years ago the potato-beetle was as
little known as its congener. It did not feed on potatoes until the po-
tato had been cultivated in its native country, the other stuck to its
original food, but might, for all we know to the contrary have increased
its range as easily as the beetle. Another dreadful scourge, the Phyl-
loxera, had also spread alarmingly, through man’s aid, during past
years, and now the question comes up, might not the Rocky Mountain
locust also spread with the assistance of man? May not the increasing
wheat-fields be an inducement for them? and may they not in time be
able to adapt themselves to circumstances of climate, etc? It was impos-

VOL. I1I—NO. 1—4.

50 The Western.

sible to say what, if any, limits were marked out for them. He in-
stanced examples of plants, such as the thistle, and several parasites
which were known to thrive in this country, but which are now plenti-
ful. He also instanced the Cuscuta, which suddenly came up in several
parts of Europe some years ago, and did considerable damage to the
Lucerne fields. This plant was a native of Chili, and was introduced
to Europe with the so-called alfalfa seed, and was a pest for eight, ten
or fifteen years. I[t has now entirely disappeared from Europe, but
has now as suddenly come up in the Shasta region of California. Fifty
years ago it had been believed that the cholera would not reach high ele-
vations in Europe or America, and forty-five years ago when it did travel
westward, that it would be excluded from them ; but it has since attacked
Switzerland, and spread widely through Mexico. The geography of
plants and animal was a comparatively recent science ; it was not known
to the ancients, Linnaeus was not ignorant of it, but Humboldt was
properly its founder. Longitude, latitude, altitude and all that we
call climate, certai:.ly do limit certain species, but time alone and the
experience of many years, can teach us what those limits are.

Prof. Riley, in reply, said that facts such as those cited by Dr. En-
geimann might be multiplied ad infinitum, and that he had done much
to record them. He insisted, however, that they had little to do with
the argumeni in point.

The |ocust is omnivorous; it will feed even upon animal matter, and
so it will not be influenced by man’s agency. There has been but little
change in the country between here and the Rocky Mountains, as to Lo-
cust food supply, and that country affords the locust no more nutriment
now than before settlement. By gradually spreading from year to year,
as the Doryphora has done, the species might conform to the new
conditions, but the transition was sudden from the high and dry
climate of the locust’s native home to the more moist lowlands of the
Mississippi Valley. Man cannot introduce them faster than the winds
and their own wings have done. Former experience proved their ina-
bility to thrive in this climate. Specimens hatched in Pennsylvania as
well as in Nebraska did not become acclimated. And if the species
could become permanent, it would, in a few generations, probably, be-
come so modified that it would lose its present injurious character,

The subject had many sides. He had discussed it at length in his
official writings, and as he had laid stress on the very fact that Dr.

Proceedings. 51

Engelmann insists on, viz., that experience alone could guide, there was
little difference of opinion after all. The difference is that, as against
the contrary opinion, entomologists consider that the experience in the
matter of this locust warrants the conclusions they have drawn.

Prof. Nipher called the attention of the Academy to an improvement
in electric lights. The pieces of carbon have heretofore been placed
end to end, attached to opposite poles of a battery. and it had been nec-
cessary to keep the points of carbon together by means of clumsy and
expensive clock-work. Jabloschkoff had improved upon this mode,
however, by placing the carbons side by side, with an insulating plate
between them, and their ends barely projecting over the end of the in-
sulating plate, melting it down as they burned away. This obviates the
necessity for the cumbrous clock-work which has always been necessary
to keep the two opposing points at the proper distance from each other.
He thought the electric light would soon come into general use for
lighting factories, railway depots, etc.

Judge Holmes criticised Mr. Darwin and some of his supporters, for
ignoring the cause of evolution, and confining his attention to the laws
according to which the evolution takes place. Mr, Riley thought that
neither Mr. Darwin, nor many of his supporters, denied the existence
of the cause, but simply declined to discuss this point for reasons which
appear to them sufficient.

It was resolved to devote the second meeting in January to a discus-
sion of some plan for securing a permanent hall or building, where the
library and cabinet of the A’cademy may find proper accommodations.

J.J. R. Patrick was elected Associate member.

Dec, 18.

Mr. Nipher gave the following communication on the mest favorable
manner of applying muscular work :

Although labor saving machinery is being constantly devised, it seems
to have the effect of increasing the amount of work accomplished rather
than of releasing individuals from the necessity of labor. Hence it
seems to be of growing importance to find the laws regulating muscular
action. Long ago it was experimentally proved by Coulomb, that a man
walking up stairs without any load, and raising his burden by his one
weight in descending, could do as much work in a day as four men work-
ing in the ordinary way with the most favorable load.

52 The Western.

Similar isolated experiments have been made by Jevons, Haughton
and myself, which have been published in Haughton’s Animal Mechan-
ics, London, 1873, and in later Scientific Journals.

Although a workman, or a horse, when working with any given tool
or machine, will adapt himself to it, working with a velocity which en-
ables him to do a maximum, it by no means follows that the conditions
might not be so changed that a greater amount of effective work might
be done with the same effort.

To take a case in point: Haughton observed some fish-women
gathering shell-fish on the ocean beach. The beach back from the water
several rods was very rough and rocky. Farther back it was smooth
and furnished good walking. Starting from the edge of the water, and
going straight to the market of the neighboring town, they would have to
walk for a longdistance over the rough stony beach. On the other hand, by
walking back at right angles to the water-mark, they would soonest get
to good walking, but they would have a greater distanee over which to
carry their burdens, The course which they actually took, was an in-
termediate one, and Prof. Haughton found that these people, ignorant
and unthinking as they were, were selecting directions which made their
work a mmimum. But of course the conditions under which they were
working might have been so improved that more useful work might
have been accomplished with the same effort.

Another illustration is afforded in the series of experiments which I
present to you this evening. The experiments were made upon the gym-
nasium swing. .

Many of the evolutions performed upon it can be made equally well
upon swings of any length—with others it is different. When the evo-
lution is such that the swing in one direction marks a period of exer-
tion, while the return is comparatively a period of rest, then the evolu-
lution cannot be equally well performed with swings of all length.

One of the most useful exercises is made as follows: Reaching up
and grasping the rings, let the swing be started, and at the beginning of

a forward swing, the feet are thrown above the head, the legs being
flexed. As the forward swing closes, the legs are extended, and the
arms flexed, the body being thus thrown upward and outward, hang-
ing at full length on the return swing. Here, also, by some
practice, one learns to accomplish the swing with a minimun
of exertion, which a good gymnast always does; nevertheless, the
number of swings before exhaustion takes place, varies with the length

Proceedings. . 53

of the rope, as is shown in the following series of experiments made
upon myself:
NIPHER.

r .
12 |

n
10.0
12.2
12.8
15,4
15.2
13.0
10.6

~

|

1]

9
8
7
6

ater etal

\NIIDBOOm WO

| distance from point of suspension to center of hands; ¢ =time ot
one complete oscillation (forward and back ); » =No. of oscillations be-
fore exhaustion.

It will be observed that » reaches a maximum where /—about 8.5
ft., or where the time of a full swing is between 3.9 and 4.0 seconds.

Another series of experiments was made upon Mr. Cunningham, a
young man about 5 feet 2 inches tall and of light build. The maximum
value of n is here reached when the length of the rope was about ten
feet and here the time of a full swing was about 4.1 seconds.

CUNNINGHAM.

14.0
16.3
17.0
14.6
12.6

In order that this and similar evolutions may be elegantly performed,
the time for the full swing when loaded with any person, should be 4
seconds.

The cause of rapid fatigue with long swings is, that the body must be
held in a constrained position for too longa time. With very short
swings, the muscles are forced to work with too great a velocity.

The muscular action is here too complex to allow of any mechanical
discussion, but these results are exactly what the discussions of Prof.
Haughton might have enabled us to predict.

Mr. Nipher remarked, that an experience of several years in the in-
vestigation of this subject, had enabled him to devise a method of in-

54 The Western.
vestigation which promises useful results, and had been approved by
such a skilful man as Prof. Jevons, of England, but he had not the means
with which to carry on the investigation.

Professor Riley made a few remarks about the anticipated locust
crop next summer, The soil in a large portion of Minnesota, Lowa,
Colorado, Nebraska, [daho, Arkansas and Texas, and in sixteen coanties
of the State of Missouri, was so thickly planted, he said, with locust
eggs, that a man could scarcely pierce the soil with a pen-knife in many
localities without touchi:.g them. He was receiving eggs from every one of
the 16 Missouri counties affected by them, (four counties in the extreme
northwest corner of the State and twelve counties in the southwest por-
tion of the State,) almost daily, and was therefore being kept constantly
informed as to the condition of these eggs in all the counties. A great
many of these eggs hatched in his office within a week after their arrival
here, and from this the professor inferred that a week’s warm weather
next spring would be sufficient to hatch them all out, providing they
were not killed beforehand by the weather. The only kind of weather
that would be at all likely to kitl them was changing weather, alternat-
ing suddenly between very mild and very cold weather. Although the
crop hatched next summer throughout the West will be much larger
than the crop of 1875, their devastaticns will certainly be much less,
for the reason that the farmers will this time be better prepared for them on
account of the experience of the past, and will be aided by the advice which
it had been made his duty to give. Ten thousand pamphlets containing
the directions of Professor Riley for destroying the lucusts in their in-
fancy, that were ordered published by the convention of governors at
Omaha, a few weeks ago, have been distributed among the furmers of
Missouri, lowa, Colorado and Nebraska, so that every preparation will
be made for the anticipated field ravagers.

Mr. Todd called the attention of Prof. Riley to a newspaper para-
graph announcing that seven car-loads of silkworm eggs had passed
through Omaha yesterday on their way to France, and he asked the
Professor how the eggs were packed to preserve their vitality.

In reply Prof. Riley described the mode adopted by silkworm grow-
ers in Japan, specialists who grow the worms only for their eggs, and who
are constantly engaged in transporting them, The eggs are first separ-
ated in some liquid solution and are then sifted through a seive upon
silk paper, previously covered with a thin coat of paste. The eggs adhere

Proceedings. 55

to the paste on the silk papers, and the latter are packed in boxes con-
structed purposely for them, and are then ready for shipment. The
silkworm, Professor Riley said, is one of the very few insects
that has been domesticated for any great length of time, and it presents
strong evidence of evolution. The ancestors of the present species of
silkworm would not be recognized now as silkworms at all.
They were flying insects and of another color, and had altogether differ-
ent habits from the domestic worm of the present time.

The silkworm has lost al] instinct of self preservation, so that it will
cut off the leaf upon which it is standing and fall to the ground with it.
The moth has lost its color and the power of flight. No better example
of the benefit arising from scientific research can be cited, than Pas-
teur’s method of controlling the silk-worm disease.

Prot. Riley said that he had raised five successive generations of
silkworms on Osage orange. Procuring French worms in 1871, he
crossed them with Japanese worms. Although some of the worms died
the first year from Botrytis they have been growing more healthy every
year, and now they are raised without difficulty. The quality of the
silk is also excellent.

Prof. Riley also stated that the proper machinery for reeling the silk
from the cocoon was now being introduced into this country, the lack of
such machinery being the only reason why silk raising had not been prof-
itable.

F. E. Nrener, Rec. Sec.

SOCIETY OF PEDAGOGY.

The Society met at the usual hour and place, Saturday, Nov, 8th.

Mr, Wm. T. Harris read a paper on “Kindergartens,” which he intro-
duced by remarks in explanation of the Kintergarten movement. In the
progress of education a circular movement is noticeable. Education
more than any other art requires new departures. It runs. fiercely in
various directions successively. In this way the introduction of the
Kindergarten movement is to be accounted for. Repetition is deaden-
ing, yet it is not without its uses. What makes the difference between
the right hand and the left? The one by repetition has acquired skill
and power to act in obedience to the will; the other is unable to do

56 The Western.
the same things because it is unpracticed. By repetition we reduce to
wont and habit things at first difficult to understand or do. When so
reduced they become, so to speak, the soil, capable of bringing forth
new fruits, the trunk, able to send forth new sprouts and branches.
Teachers are to bring pupils from ignorance into knowledge and goodness,
Cognize and construct are the two memorial words of Froebel’s system.
Teachers are to take up what life has done, they make use of things
well known, which have become use and wont to them. In the Kinder-
garten the child begins with things which are not symbolical, instead of
commencing with the alphabet which is symbolical in its nature.

After taking up the several gifts (so called) of Froebel in their order,
and explaining the purpose subserved by each, Mr. Harris passed to the
consideration of the results expected or already noticed. It might be
supposed that skill would be shown in recognizing, constructing and in-
venting forms, In learning the alphabet the skill acquired would enable
the pupil to recognize and distinguish between the different letters, and also
to draw or construct them. Pupils who have attended the Kindergar-
ten show a greater degree of self-helpfulness, and self-ovcupation in use-
ful things instead of wrong things. The training which the muscles
receive, and which causes the blood to flow in certain directions, is ex-
ceedingly valuable, and renders the scholars much more skilful in after
years as artizans or workmen, The manners of the children can be
cared for in the Kindergarten in a way not attainable in the primary
department, this attention may be made to extend not only to cleanli-
ness, but to the manner of eating and drinking, and in fact to all the
simpler matters of etiquette. Teachers are unanimous in the opinion
that children who hav: attended the Kindergarten do better work after
they enter the primary department.

There is however danger that the school stage may be puxhed into
the nursery stage, and thereby the individuality of the child be repres-
sed. In play, a child treats every thing with which he deals in an ideal
sense, as though he were absolute master of every thing to keep or
destroy at will. If this feeling is repressed the individuality will not
be properly developed. So essential is this stage to the development of
the child that it would be unwise to check too sharply the destructive
propensity shown by children at a certain age, On the other hand the
discipline of the Kindergarten must not be so lax that the scholars run
riot.

Book Reviews. 57

Data are now being collected from which statistics will be prepared
with a view to obtaining more satisfactory and certain grounds for the
formation of judgments as to the results of the St. Louis Kinder-
gartens.

W. J. 8S. Bryan.

BOOK REVIEWS

SCIENCE FOR THE SCHOOL AND FAmiLy. Part II. Chem-
istry. By Worthington Hooker, M. D., New York: Har-
per & Bros., 1876.

‘The aim of this work, as asserted in the Preface, is to present “ only that
which every well informed person ought to know on the subject.” [ts de-
sign is to teach the Chemistry of ordinary life, aud therefore excludes that
which is of value only to the Chemist. Technical terms are used as spar-
ingly as possible, and only after a full explanation of their meaning. The
book is not intended for reference, yet is full of information in regard to the
Chemistry of common things. Its arrangement is clear and its subject is
treated in a manner both simple and interesting. It fills excellently its
double office of an introduction to Chemistry and a general text book for
the school and family, and will undoubtedly give entire satisfaction to those

using it.

B. V. B. Drxon.

FREDERIC FROEBEL. A Biographical Sketch. By Matilda
M. Kruge. E. Steiger, New York, Publisher.

To read of a great man is the next best thing to knowing him ; and when
we understand great to include good, this littke book makes us very much
desire to know more of Frederic Froebel, for here we have only a sketch.

The subject of Kindergarten cannot receive too much attention since it
treats of little children. From Froebel’s stand-point the men of the nation
were in the hands of the mothers, next to God, and he worked out a system

58 The Western.

of education, the foundation of which is that the development of the indi-
vidual is reached through activity.

Froebel’s mind being more active than his body, even at the early age of
10 years, it was a constant mortification to him nut to be able to join in
with other children of his age, because of the lack of physical development.
He realized early the necessity of comparison, in craving the society of
other minds, which he very beautifully developed in his system of Kinder”
garten. Froebel’s aim iu life was truly an unselfish one, being to ennoble
and educate human beings. Hearing that the aim of Pestalozzi (who was then
living in Switzerland), was to establish a school tor orphans, he went to him
to obtain aid and comfort in his project in life. He improved very much on
Pestalozzi’s manner of instruction. Froebel thought there was too much
of mechanical instruction; instead of so much being given them, more
might be developed from them. This is one of Froebel’s strong points,
Comparing his idea with a rose if we take the bud and try to foree it open,
we cannot, and do not see its beauty or perfection, but if we wait and help
it gradually to unfold each leaf we feel great satisfaction in the rose. So
he thought with little children. Another of Froebel’s strong points was to
cultivate in children affection for one another. He thought the first requi-
site and true mode of teaching was to enter into their feelings and pursuits.
The name Kindergarten was first given to Froebel’s school in 1840. The
circumstance of his naming it is one of the pleasant incidents of the book.
To undertake to quote the fine things stated or even to call attention to
special points in the man’s life would enlarge the notice to too great an ex-
tent, and we earnestly say we hope that not only this book will be read, but
all the works of tis writer.

Ciara M. Hussarp.

PUBLIC LIBRARIES IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
their History, Condition, and Management. Special Re-
port Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education.
Washington : Government Printing Office, 1876.

This bulky volume of 1,187 pages is one of the most valuable contribu-
tions to the resources of the student of social problems. Itis unfortunate that
in a time when it is fashionable to eulogize ** education and culture,”
so few persons should have the courage to attack any volume not of pamph-
let size and which selects for its theme any subject which requires study
upon the part of both author and reader. It is furthermore unfortunate

Book Reviews. 59

that while thie Public Documents of the U. 8. never fail to contain valuable
and available information, indifference and prejudice should prevent
even their careless examination by those who would speedily require no
stimulus for their interest. Perhaps some of the many litterateurs may when
in want of a subject, give the Public an article upon the mines of wealth
buried in these despised but not unworthy efforts of laborious men.

The contents of the book under consideration, are substantially as fol-
lows:

1. Public Libraries a hundred yéars ago, p. 1. 2. School and Asylum
Libraries, 38. 3. College Libraries, 60. 4. Theological Libraries, 127. 5.
Law Libraries, 161. 6. Medival Libraries,171. 7. Scientific Libraries, 183.
8. Libraries in Prisons and Reformatories, 218. 9. Professorships of Books
and Reading, 230. 10. Libraries of the General Government, 252. 11°
Copyright, Distribution, Exchanges and Duties, 279. 12. State and Ter-
ritorial Librafies, 292. 13. Historical Societies, 312. 14. Mercantile Libra-
ries, 378. 15. Young Men's Christian Associations, 386. 16. Free Libra-
ries, 389. 17. Public Libraries in Manufacturing Communities, 403. 18.
Public Libraries and the Young, 412. 19. How to Make Town Libraries Suc-
cessful, 419. 20. Reading in Popular Libraries, 431. 21. Art Museums
and their connection with Public Libraries, 434. 22. Free ‘Town Libraries,
445. 23. Free Reading Rooms, 460. 24. Library Buildings, 465. 25. The
Organization and Management of Public Libraries, 476. 26. College Library
Administration, 505. 27. Library Catalogues, 526. 28. Catalogues and
Cataloguing, 623. 29. On Indexing Popular and Miscellaneous Literature»
663. 30. Binding and Preservation of Books, 673. 31. Periodical Litera
ture and Soeiety Publications, 679. 32. Works of Reference for Libraries,
686. 33. Library Memoranda,711. 34. Titles of Books, 715. 35. Book
Indexes, 727. 36. Library Bibliography, 723. 37. Library Reports and
Statistics, 745. 38. Public Libraries of Ten Principal Cities, 837. 39. Gen-
eral Statistics of all Public Libraries in the U. S., 1,010.

The most striking points of interest to those interested in general libra-
ries, whether as managers or readers, are :

1. The article on The Study of Library Science, in which the more im-
portant and frequently neglected duties of Librarians are clearly set forth
and strongly insisted upon. To cite a single passage: ** It is clear that the
Librarian must svon be called upon to assume a distinct position, as some-
thing more than the mere custodian of books, and the scientific scope and
value of his office be recognized and estimated in a becoming manner.’

>
—)

The Western.

. Professorships of Books and Reading.

. Libraries of the General Government.

. Copyright, Distribution, Exchanges and Duties.

. Historical Societies—Missouri Historical Society.

Free Libraries—Character of the Literature to be supplied.
. Public Libraries and the Young.

- How to make Town Libraries Successful.

- Organization and Management of Public Libraries.

. Library Catalogues.

CONDO ww

—
-_-

- Catalogues and Cataloguing.

. Indexing Periodical and Miscellaneous Literature.
. Binding and Preservation of Books.

. Works of Reference for Libraries.

— tt
mm w bo

EDITOR.

Kiemw’s LESE UND SpRACHBUCH. IV. Kreis. “New York :

Henry Holt & Co.

This fourth circle (“* Kreis”) contains similar exercises to those of-
fered in the preceding circles; it only differs from them in this, that the
exercises are more difficult and are adapted to the advanced abil-
ity of pupils of this age (4th school year). With regard to the trans-
lation lessons, Mr. Klemm states, that “ translation should not at this
age be taught for the sake of translation, but simply to aid the general
language instruction, by affording opportunities for grouping the matter
under certain gramwar rules against which children are apt to sin.
Whether, therefore, a translation is exactly congruent in sense with the
original sentence, must be the second consideration, and not the first.”’

With respect to the selection of reading-matter Mr. Klemm follows
that most excellent maxim: Instruction of children must in all its
extent tend more to develop the inborn intellectual powers, than to fill
the mind with dry knowledge. The ability to apply knowledge must be
worth as much, if not more, than knowledge itself. He abstains
for this reason, from ‘‘making the Reader a servant to object lessons”’
(‘* An.chauungs-Unterricht”), saying the Reader could not possibly
be a compendium of practical knowledge, as is very frequently the case
in German readers,”

The practical hints to teachers, of which we spoke in the last number
of “The Western ” have materially decreased in this circle, Lt seems,
that Mr. Klemm intends to abandon them altogether in the next circles,

Wa. H. Rosensrenee.

Noticeable Articles in Magazines and Reviews. 61

LESSING’S MINNA VON BARNHELM, With an Introduction and
Notes, by Wm. Dwight Whitney. New York: Henry Holt
& Co.

This nice little book contains the Drama, an Introduction and Notes.
The text is very correct; the Introduction gives a brief synopsis of the
play ; the Notes “ furnish the student of German, in as brief and come
pact a form as possible, with the aid which he requires for the ready
and correct understanding of the text, leaving him to find out from it
for himself the story and its connection, and to estimate for himself the
literary beauties which he will not fail to discover; leaving him also
to put the meaning which he understands into such an English form as
shall satisfy himself, or his teacher.”” The mingled French, and French-
man’s German of the II. 4, and is turned with utmost possible literalness
into German, which deserves praise. Paper, Typography and binding are
all excellent.

We commend this little book to all, especially to those that use
Wrankmore’s Minna v. Barnhelm, which is incorrect.

Wu. H. Rosenrenaen.

NOTICEABLE ARTICLES IN MAGAZINES
AND REVIEWS.

Harper’s—Jan. I. Contemporary Art in England. Ul. Garth. ILI. Rec-
ollections of Thackeray.
Littell’s Living Age—1694, I. Secret Correspondence of Marie Antoinette.
1695. 1. London Alms and London Pauperism. IL.
Charlotte Bronté: a Monograph (Corn-
hill).
1696. Erckmann—Chatrian.
1697. I. Bunsen and His Wife. Il. Thoughts on
Criticism, by a Critic.

s

62 The Western.

Atlantic—Jan. I. The American. Il. Old Woman’s Gossip. ILI. Char-
acteristics of the International Fair. .

Dublin University Review—Dec. LI. Irish Archeology. Il. The Palace of
the Cesars. III. Milton’s Satan. IV. Roman Lawyers. V.
Studies in Scottish Literature.

Fortnightly Review—Dec. 1. Arthur Schopenhauer.

Fraser’s—Dec. I On the Uses of a Landed Gentry. II. Melancthon.
Ill. Biology in Schools.

Galazy—Jan. I. Administration of Abraham Lincoln. LI. Madcap Vio-
let. ILI. On Reading Shakespeare.

Maemillan’s—Dec. I. Madcap Violet. IL. National Education.

Lippineott’s—Jan. I. Pictures from Spain. Il, Phidias and his Predeces-

sors.

The School Bulletin and Northwestern Journal of Education,
Wisconsin; Home and School Key; The sllinois Schoolmaster,
Ills, The Michigan Teacher and The School, Mich.; The Nebras-
ka Teacher, Neb.; The School Reporter, Ind., are consolidated to
form Tue Epucationat Werkty. The Kditors are: Prof. Wm. F.
Phelps, Prof. Edw. Olney, Hon, J. M. Gregory, Hon, Newton Bateman.
The State Editors are: Michigan—Prof. Lewis MeLouth; [llinois—
Prof. John W. Cook; Minnesota—Supt. O. V. Tousley; Nebraska—
Prof. C. B. Palmer; Iowa—Prof. J. M. DeArmond. The Publishers
are Winchel! and Klein, 170 Clark St., Chicago.

The first Number contains the following articles : Denominational Col-
leges and State Universities; Tell the Truth; Vergil or Virgil; An
Error in the Unabridged ; A New Method of Primary Teaching; Indi-
viduality of Pupils ia Public Schools,

The last numbers of ‘the American Journal of Education, St.
Louis, Mo., contain an excellent article on “ The Doors Thrown Open,”
by Anna C. Brackett. They also give extracts from the very able
and exhaustive article of Mr.Wm. T. Harris, published ina late issue of the
Atlantic Monthly, on “ The Division of School Funds for Religious
purposes.”

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POETRY, ART, AND FICTION.

Ancient Mariner, Illus, by Dore.

Boys of Other Countries. B. Taylor.

Captain Mago Léon, Cahun.

Captain Sam, G. C. Eggleston.

Daisy Travers. A. F. Samuels.

Deirdre. (Nu Name Series).

Fallen Fortunes, J. Payn.

Gabriel Conroy. B. Harte.

Home at Greylock. Mrs, E. Prentiss.

Kate Danton, May A. Fleming.

Living too Fast. W.T. Adams,

Nelly Kinnard’s Kingdom. Amanda M. Douglas.
Noblesse Oblige. C. Carlos Clarke.
Pacchiarotto, &c. R. Browning.

Roddy’s Reality.

Wenderholme. P. G. Hamerton.

Winged Lion, Jas. DeMille. (Young Dodge Club).
Winwood Cliff. Daniel Wise.

Wit, Humor and Shakespeare. Jno. Weiss.

BIOGRAPHY, HISTORY, AND TRAVELS.

Centennial Hy. of U.S. C. B. Taylor.

Dottings Round the Circle. Benj. R. Curtis.

Florida, S. Lanier.

Gallery of Great Composers. C. Jager & E. F. Rimbault.
History and Conquests of the Saracens, E, A, Freeman.
Recueil de Pieces Authentiques. Sur L’Empereur Napoleon.
Roman History. W. W. Capes.

Rubens, P. Life of. Geo. H. Calvert.

St. Louis. Reavis. Centennial Edition.

Books Added to the Mercantile Library.

Shenandoah Valley Campaign in 1861. Robt, Patterson.
Southern Side; or Andersonville Prison. R. R. Stevenson.
Story of Our Country. Mrs. L. B. Monroe,

Turkistan. E, Schuyler.

U.S. Mint at Phila., Cabinet of.

PHILOSOPHY.
Amongst Machines,
Carlyle Anthology.
Clark, Robert, American Catalogue.
Correct Card, (Whist), C. Campbell Walker.
Elements of Analytical Mechanics. De Volson Wood.
Ethics of Benedict de Spinoza.
Law of the Road. R. V. Rogers, Jr.
Lawrence, Mass. Free Library Catalogue.
Luther, Martin, Werke.
Milton Anthology.
Once Upon a Time. Mary E. Craigie.
Physical Life of Woman. G. H. Napheys.
Statistics of the World. Alex. J. Schem.
Transmission of Life. G. H. Napheys.
Twelve Years in the Mines of California. L. B. Patterson
U. 8. Geog. & Geol. Rep’s. Vol. 5. Zodlogy.
Watchman, What of the Night? Jno. Cumming.

ROBINSON’S SHORTER COURSE.
THE COMPLETE ALGEBRA.

By JOSEPH FICKLIN, Ph. D., Professor of Mathematics
in the University of the Sta‘e of Missouri. Bound in Cloth.
426 pages. Retail price, $2.00. Intr. price, $1.34.

This work exhibits briefly and clearly all the principles of Algebra which are required by stu
dents in Celleges and Universities, while at the same time it is so graded as to be well adapted to
students of a lower grade in elementary classes.

It contains many new and striking features in the arranyement of its topics, in its c/ear and
concise definitions and rules, in its rigorous demonstrations, and in the variety and great
abundance of examples. It is a highly meritorious and practical work, both jin theory and ap-
plication.

7 way : - —

Pres. J. F.Wtiiams, Baptist College, Louisiana, Mo., Aug. 8, ’7:
I am well pleased with the arrangement of Picklin’s Complete Algebra. [ think you

have hit the ‘‘ golden mean” between a too elementary and a too difficult work, and have given

us a work suitable for all who are prepared to enter upon the study.

W. H. itnaprorp, Cortland, N. Y., July 7. 1875. savs:

Have examined Ficklin’s Complete Algebra somewhat carefully, and do not hesitate
to give, as my opinion, that it is the best caleulated for the general student, of all the works on
algebra | have ever seen.

. . , p \ » . .
Prof. J. EK, Utearp, U S. Coast Survey Office, Washington, D.U,, says:

I have examined with great satisfaction Ficklin’s Complete Algebra. | am per-
suaded that the treatment of the subject is such as greatly to promote a thorough understand-
ing, and to foster a liking for the study of mathematics
Daniet Kirkwoop, Prof. of Mathematics, [Indiana University, Bloom-

ington, Indiana, says :

I regard Ficklin’s Complete Algebra a: a work of superior merit. [t ie well ar-
ranged, clear and comprehensive

‘ : * R >
Rosert Granam, Prin. Hoeker Female Coll., Lexington, Ky., Jan. 1
1875, says:

Lam sure you have done a good service to. the cause of sound scholarship, in publishing
Ficklin’s Complete Algebra.

Jno. B. Brapuey, formeriy Profsef,Math., Mt. Pleasant Coll., and

Ww. Jewell College, Mo., Jan. 5, 1875. says:

The definitionsin Ficklin’s Complete Algebra, are clear and concise; arrangement
good ; chapter on negative quantities best yet pubiish treatment of radical quantities excel-
lent, and your analyses fully and accurately represent every item in each chapter
Prot P. J. Carmicuart, Prof. Math., State Normal School, Emporia.

,

Kans., says :

I have no hesitancy in saying that, as a complete short course, and one we udapted to our
school, Ficklin’s Complete Algebra meets my entire approval. 1 believe it is just the
book we want.

J. W. Carter, Waverly, Lafayette (o., Mo., Dec. 3, 1874, says:

Ficklin’s Complete Algebra is gotten up in elegant style, both as to matter «nd men
ner.

’

ae This Book has just heen ad pi a for use an tft St. Louis
High School. It is already used tn many of the leading schools of the
West. Correspondence will receive prompt attention.
IVISON, BLAKEMAN TAYLOR & CO.,
Pusiishers,
* 138 and 140 Grand Street, New York.
Address O. M. BAKER or J. C. ELLIS, 407 N. Fourth Street,
ST. LOUIs, MO,
4

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Invaluable Aid to Students of English
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i

REPRESENTATIVE NAMES* IN ENGLISH LITERA-
TURE. H. H. MorGan. D. Appleton & Co., N.Y., 1876.

This book gives in simall compass the names essentini to a complete history of Eoglish Litera-
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Gow’s Good Morals and Gentle Manners
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